In this post, notes of “Unit 1: Late Imperial China and Western Imperialism” from “DSC- 3: History of modern China 1840- 1950s” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
Confucian Value System; Society, Economy, Polity
Introduction to Confucianism
Origins and Development
Confucianism is a system of thinking about ethics and behavior based on the ideas of Confucius, a Chinese teacher and philosopher who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. It started during a chaotic time in Chinese history. Confucius wanted to bring back order and good morals by stressing the importance of kindness, personal growth, and relationships.
The main idea of Confucianism is to build a peaceful society through personal goodness, fulfilling social roles, and having good leaders. Confucius’ teachings were written down by his students, and over time, they became important in Chinese culture and government.
Confucianism grew a lot during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) and became the main belief system for the government, affecting education and society. It also spread to other East Asian countries like Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Key Tenets and Principles
The main ideas of Confucianism focus on personal growth, harmony in society, and good leadership. Key concepts include:
Ren (仁): This means kindness and caring for others, which is the most important virtue in Confucianism.
Li (礼): This means proper behavior and rituals, which help keep harmony in relationships.
Xiao (孝): This means respect for parents and ancestors, highlighting the importance of family loyalty.
Yi (义): This means doing what is right, even if it doesn’t benefit you personally.
Zhi (智): This means wisdom, or the ability to make good decisions based on understanding.
Junzi (君子): This refers to an ideal person who embodies all Confucian virtues and sets a moral example for others.
The Five Relationships: Confucianism highlights five important relationships:
- Ruler and subject
- Father and son
- Husband and wife
- Elder brother and younger brother
- Friend and friend
Each relationship has roles and expectations.
Major Confucian Texts
The Analects (Lunyu, 论语): A collection of Confucius’ sayings and teachings recorded by his students. It is a key text for understanding his philosophy.
The Five Classics (Wujing, 五经): Important texts for Confucian education, including:
The Book of Songs (Shijing, 诗经): Old Chinese poems.
The Book of Documents (Shujing, 书经): Historical records and speeches.
The Book of Rites (Liji, 礼记): Describes rituals and social norms.
The Book of Changes (Yijing, 易经): Discusses philosophy and divination.
The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu, 春秋): A history of the state of Lu.
The Four Books: These texts became more important during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE):
- The Analects
- The Mencius (Mengzi, 孟子): Expands on Confucius’ ideas.
- The Great Learning (Daxue, 大学): Stresses personal and societal growth.
- The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong, 中庸): Focuses on balance and moderation in life.
Confucian Society
Social Hierarchies and Roles
Confucianism views society as having clear roles, where everyone is expected to act with virtue. These roles are often linked to family, emphasizing respect for authority. The basic social roles are:
- The Ruler and the Subject: The ruler should be kind and wise, while the subject should be loyal and obedient.
- The Father and the Son: Children must honor and respect their parents and ancestors.
- The Elder Brother and the Younger Brother: The elder sets an example, while the younger shows respect.
- The Husband and the Wife: The husband has a leading role, but mutual respect is important.
- Friends: Friendships are based on equality and respect, unlike the other relationships.
This hierarchy also applied to government jobs, where officials were chosen based on their knowledge of Confucian texts and morals.
Family Structure and Kinship
Family is very important in Confucianism. The relationship between children and parents, especially fathers, is emphasized. Confucian families value respect for elders and honor their ancestors.
- Patriarchy: In Confucian society, men, especially fathers, hold authority. Women often take care of the home and children.
- The Role of Women: Women’s roles are mostly domestic, but they are expected to be virtuous and respectful.
- Ancestor Worship: Confucianism encourages honoring ancestors, which includes rituals for those who have passed away.
Education and Civil Service
Confucianism values education for personal improvement and moral growth. Education is essential for becoming a junzi (ideal person) and is central to the civil service system.
- The Imperial Examination System: This system, started during the Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) and expanded later, tested people on Confucian teachings and was meant to select officials based on their knowledge rather than their family background.
- The Role of Education: Education is vital for good governance and personal virtue. It aims to create ethical leaders who govern wisely. The curriculum focuses on studying Confucian texts and applying their principles in real life.
In summary, Confucianism has influenced personal behavior, government structure, and social roles in China for over two thousand years, emphasizing education, respect for authority, and moral development.
Economy in Late Imperial China
Late Imperial China lasted from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) to the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). The economy was mostly based on farming, but trade and technology also grew. These changes helped China become a powerful country, especially during the Qing Dynasty.
Agricultural Practices and Land Ownership
- Farming Focus: Most people in Late Imperial China worked in agriculture. They grew crops like rice in the south, wheat and millet in the north, and maize and sweet potatoes from the Americas during the Qing period. Tea, silk, and cotton were also important.
- Land Control: Wealthy landlords owned large areas of land, which was often worked by tenant farmers or peasants. Landlords had significant power over the farmers, who paid rent by sharing a portion of their crops.
- Taxes and Communities: The state relied on land taxes based on how productive the land was. Most farming methods were traditional, but some improvements were made in irrigation and tools. Village leaders helped connect the farmers and the government. Many farmers grew food for their families, but some sold their extra crops.
- Wealth Gap: Despite better farming, the land was not shared equally. Wealthy landowners kept most of the land, while peasants struggled to pay taxes. This inequality led to uprisings, like the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864).
Trade and Commerce
- Local Trade: Trade within China grew during this time. The Ming and Qing dynasties saw an increase in the market economy, with busy trade routes linking cities and villages. Key products included grains, textiles, silk, and porcelain. Canals and roads helped move goods, with cities like Hangzhou, Nanjing, and Canton (Guangzhou) becoming trade centers.
- Global Trade: In the 17th and 18th centuries, China became an important part of global trade, exporting silk, porcelain, and tea to Europe and other regions, while importing silver, cotton, and luxury items. The Canton System (1757–1842) limited foreign trade to Canton, but the opium trade with Britain became significant, leading to the Opium Wars.
- Commercial Cities: Cities like Canton, Suzhou, and Shanghai grew as trade centers, leading to the rise of a merchant class called shangren. Although merchants were not greatly respected in Confucian society, their influence grew due to their control over trade.
- Western Influence: In the 19th century, Western powers like Britain started to control China’s trade routes, leading to unfair treaties that weakened China’s economy and independence.
Technological Innovations
- Farming Improvements: Late Imperial China saw some advancements in farming, like better irrigation, new crops from the Americas, and crop rotation. These helped support a larger population.
- Craft Industries: China continued to produce high-quality goods in areas like silk, porcelain, and paper. New techniques made Chinese porcelain very sought after worldwide.
- Printing Growth: The invention of movable type printing increased book production, leading to a booming publishing industry that spread knowledge in many fields.
- Military Developments: There were improvements in military technology, such as better gunpowder weapons and shipbuilding. However, China started to fall behind Western powers, which contributed to defeats in wars.
Political System
The political system in Late Imperial China was based on Confucian ideas, focusing on order and harmony. The government was centralized, with the emperor at the top and a structured bureaucracy where scholar-officials played key roles.
Structure of the Imperial Government
- The Emperor: The emperor was seen as the Son of Heaven and held absolute power. His authority depended on ruling fairly and following Confucian values. His role was both political and spiritual, ensuring harmony between heaven and earth.
- Mandate of Heaven: The emperor’s right to rule came from the Mandate of Heaven, which relied on his moral conduct. If he failed to govern well, this mandate could be taken away, leading to the fall of the dynasty.
- Imperial Court: The emperor was supported by a court of ministers and officials, many of whom were chosen through exams based on Confucian teachings. They helped the emperor make decisions on policies, governance, and military issues.
Role of the Emperor
The emperor was a symbol of unity and had several duties:
- Ensuring the empire’s prosperity and well-being.
- Managing foreign relations through diplomacy or military action.
- Upholding Confucian values, such as kindness and justice.
- Overseeing the bureaucracy that ran the day-to-day operations of the empire.
While the emperor had great power, much of the governing work was done by officials.
Bureaucratic Organization
- Civil Service: The bureaucratic system was made up of scholar-officials who passed tough exams based on Confucian texts. This was meant to select the best people for government roles.
- Local Administration: China was divided into provinces, each led by a governor chosen by the emperor. Below the provinces were prefectures and counties, with local officials in charge of law, taxes, and communication with the central government.
- Specialized Ministries: The government had specific ministries for different functions, such as:
- Ministry of Rites for ceremonies and diplomacy.
- Ministry of War for military matters.
- Ministry of Revenue for tax collection.
- Ministry of Justice for legal issues.
Legal and Judicial Systems
- Laws: The legal system was based on the Imperial Code, focusing on social harmony. The Qing Code was an important legal document that defined crimes and punishments.
- Judicial System: The judicial system was organized, with local officials (magistrates) handling disputes and criminal cases. Appeals could go to higher authorities, sometimes reaching the emperor. Torture was often used for serious crimes.
- Punishments: The legal system aimed to maintain order, with punishments ranging from fines to execution. The emperor was seen as ultimately responsible for the state’s moral integrity.
In summary, the political system of Late Imperial China was centralized, with the emperor at the top, supported by a bureaucracy guided by Confucian values. While the emperor held great power, officials carried out much of the governance, helping to maintain stability in the empire.
Opium Wars and the Unequal Treaty System
Background and Causes of the Opium Wars
The Opium Wars (First: 1839–1842; Second: 1856–1860) were important events in China’s history and marked the start of Western control in China. The wars were mainly caused by economic issues, competition for colonies, and changes in global trade.
Trade Imbalances with the West
- China’s Economy: In the 18th and early 19th centuries, China was mostly self-sufficient. It didn’t need many foreign goods and had popular products like silk, porcelain, and tea that other countries wanted, especially in Europe. This led China to export more than it imported, causing Britain to lose a lot of silver as they bought Chinese goods, especially tea.
- Western Trade Issues: The British wanted Chinese products but had little to sell that China wanted. This trade imbalance frustrated Western traders, especially the British East India Company, which managed much of Britain’s trade with China.
The Opium Trade and Its Impact
- Using Opium: To fix the trade imbalance, British merchants, especially those from the British East India Company, began trading opium from British-controlled India to China. Opium was addictive, and the British saw it as a way to make money and balance trade.
- Increasing Addiction: By the early 1800s, opium was being smuggled into China in large amounts. Many Chinese, especially among the elite, became addicted, leading to serious social and economic problems. This addiction harmed productivity and caused great suffering in society.
- China’s Response: The Chinese government, especially under the Qing Dynasty, saw the damage caused by the opium trade. Although opium was banned in 1729, the trade continued. By the 1830s, the Qing government, led by Emperor Daoguang, realized they needed to take stronger action. Lin Zexu was appointed in 1839 to stop the opium trade.
Chinese Reactions and Policies
- Lin Zexu’s Efforts: Lin Zexu was given special powers to fight the opium trade. In 1839, he ordered the destruction of over 1,000 tons of opium in Canton (now Guangzhou), which was taken from British merchants. He also took other measures, like seizing foreign goods and expelling foreign traders from Canton.
- British Reaction: The British, especially the merchants involved in the opium trade, were angry. They saw the Chinese actions as an attack on their business and rights. The British government, wanting to keep trade free, responded with military force.
First Opium War (1839-1842)
Key Events and Battles
- Starting Conflicts: The First Opium War began after China’s crackdown on the opium trade. In response to the destruction of opium and the expulsion of foreign traders, Britain sent military forces to China in 1839 to restore the opium trade and expand their business rights.
- Military Strength: The British Navy and Army were much stronger than the Chinese forces. They had better weapons and technology, while the Qing military used outdated methods. The British easily won several battles along the coast, including capturing Canton (Guangzhou) in 1841, and taking Xiamen and Shanghai.
- Siege of Canton: In 1841, the British surrounded Canton, captured it, and forced the Qing government to talk. The Qing, unable to defend themselves effectively, faced the threat of British forces moving toward the capital, Beijing.
Major Figures and Leaders
- Lin Zexu: The Chinese official who led the fight against opium. His actions, while supported by the emperor, escalated tensions with Britain, leading to war. He was later blamed for the defeat.
- Queen Victoria: The British queen involved in decisions regarding the war. The British government wanted to keep the opium trade and expand its influence in China.
- Charles Elliot: A British naval officer who was key in the early part of the conflict. He was sent to protect British interests in Canton and later negotiated for Britain.
Outcomes and the Treaty of Nanking
- Treaty of Nanking (1842): The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in August 1842, which favored Britain heavily and marked the start of China’s “century of humiliation” under Western powers. Key terms included:
- Ceding Hong Kong to Britain, which became a British colony.
- Opening Five Treaty Ports: China had to open five cities, including Shanghai, Canton, Xiamen, Ningbo, and Fuzhou, to British trade.
- Indemnity Payments: China had to pay 21 million silver dollars to Britain for the war costs and destroyed opium.
- Most-Favored-Nation Status: Britain gained rights to trade freely in all ports and enjoyed protection from Chinese law for its nationals.
Second Opium War (1856-1860)
– Causes and Triggers
The Second Opium War arose from ongoing tensions between China and Western powers, plus the need for more concessions after the Treaty of Nanking. Key causes included:
- Unequal Treaties: The Treaty of Nanking was humiliating for China but didn’t meet Western demands for open trade and diplomatic rights. Britain and France wanted more from the Qing government.
- The Arrow Incident (1856): The immediate cause of the Second Opium War was the Arrow Incident. In 1856, Chinese officials boarded a ship called the Arrow, which had British ties and was carrying opium. The British demanded punishment for this, claiming disrespect for their flag, which led to conflict.
- French Involvement: France joined Britain after a French missionary, Father Auguste Chapdelaine, was killed in 1856. This gave France a reason to intervene.
– Significant Military Campaigns
- British and French Attacks: The British and French forces attacked China together. They retook Canton and moved toward Beijing, fighting in several battles, including the Battle of Canton (1857) and Capture of the Summer Palace (1860).
- The Battle of Taku Forts (1859): This important battle involved a combined British and French fleet attacking the Taku Forts near Tianjin. The Chinese defenders lost, allowing the forces to advance toward Beijing.
- Capture of Beijing: In 1860, British and French forces took Beijing, looted the Summer Palace, and forced the Qing government to negotiate.
– Consequences and the Treaties of Tientsin
- Treaty of Tientsin (1858): This treaty was signed between the Qing government and Western powers, including Britain, France, the United States, and Russia. Key points included:
- Opening more ports to Western trade.
- Legalizing the opium trade: China had to allow the opium trade and give more rights to Western powers.
- Extraterritoriality: Western nationals were not subject to Chinese law.
- Convention of Peking (1860): This treaty ended the war and confirmed the terms of the Treaty of Tientsin, further humiliating China. China lost the Kowloon territory (part of Hong Kong) to Britain and had to pay more indemnities.
Long-Term Effects
- Decline of the Qing Dynasty: The Opium Wars weakened the Qing Dynasty, leading to internal conflicts like the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) that further damaged its power.
- Economic and Social Impact: The wars opened China to foreign control, leading to more opium addiction and social problems. Loss of territory and rights caused growing anger against the Qing rulers and set the stage for political reforms.
In summary, the Opium Wars were driven by complex economic and political issues, including trade problems, the opium trade, and Western ambitions. The wars resulted in unequal treaties, leading to the decline of the Qing Dynasty and the start of Western dominance in China.
The Unequal Treaty System
The Unequal Treaty System is a term for treaties that Western countries and Japan forced on China between the mid-1800s and early 1900s. They are called “unequal” because they were imposed on China after military losses and greatly favored the foreign powers, harming China’s independence and economy.
Characteristics and Features
- Forced Agreements: The treaties were not made through fair discussions but were imposed after China lost wars, like the Opium Wars. Foreign powers used their stronger military to get what they wanted from China.
- Loss of Land and Power: China had to give up land to foreign countries (like Hong Kong to Britain and Taiwan to Japan), allow foreign people to live by their own laws, and let foreign powers control important areas and ports.
- Economic Control: The treaties gave foreign powers control over China’s trade routes, ports, and taxes. This allowed foreign goods and traders to operate freely in China, hurting local businesses. China also lost its ability to set its own tax rates.
- Treaty Ports: The treaties opened specific ports for foreign trade, where foreign merchants could operate with little interference from the Chinese government. Important ports included Shanghai, Canton (Guangzhou), Ningbo, and Tianjin.
- Most-Favored-Nation Clause: This meant that any special agreement made with one foreign country also applied to all other foreign countries, which further reduced China’s control over trade.
- Opium Trade: The treaties allowed the opium trade to continue, which caused social and economic problems in China and contributed to the weakening of the Qing Dynasty.
Major Treaties (e.g., Treaty of Nanking, Treaty of Tientsin)
- Treaty of Nanking (1842):
- This was the first and most significant unequal treaty, signed after the First Opium War. It forced China to give up Hong Kong, open five ports to foreign trade, and pay a large sum to Britain.
- Treaty of Tientsin (1858):
- Signed during the Second Opium War, it opened more ports, legalized opium, and granted foreign nationals special rights in China.
- Convention of Peking (1860):
- This treaty, signed after foreign forces captured Beijing, added more territory for foreign powers and reinforced earlier treaties.
- Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895):
- Signed after the First Sino-Japanese War, this treaty recognized Japan’s power and forced China to give up Taiwan and other territories to Japan.
- Boxer Protocol (1901):
- Following the Boxer Rebellion, this treaty imposed harsh penalties on China, including payments to foreign countries and allowing foreign troops in Beijing.
Impact on China’s Sovereignty and Economy
- Loss of Control: The treaties took away China’s power, making it a semi-colonial state. The Qing government could no longer handle foreign relations or trade effectively.
- Economic Problems: China’s economy suffered due to low tariffs that let cheap foreign goods flood the market, hurting local industries. Foreign powers controlled significant parts of the economy, exploiting resources without fair compensation.
- Rise of Foreign Influence: Countries like Britain, France, Russia, and Japan gained control over different regions in China, enjoying special legal and economic privileges.
Socio-Political and Economic Impact of Western Imperialism
Western imperialism greatly affected Chinese society, economy, and politics. The arrival of Western ideas and foreign control revealed weaknesses in China’s traditional ways, leading to various reforms and uprisings.
Changes in Chinese Society and Culture
- Social Issues: The unequal treaties and the opium trade increased social problems and poverty, weakening the gentry class and harming many people.
- Opium Addiction: The legal opium trade led to a rise in addiction, harming workers and families and highlighting the Qing Dynasty’s weakness.
- Challenge to Traditional Values: Western ideas of individual rights and democracy clashed with Confucian traditions, sparking debates about the future of Chinese culture.
- Western Education and Religion: Missionaries set up schools and churches, introducing new ideas and Western education, which some reformers supported.
Economic Exploitation and Industrial Impact
- Economic Control: Foreign nations controlled much of China’s trade and resources, benefiting at China’s expense. The opium trade was a key example of this exploitation.
- Limited Industrial Growth: While Western technology brought some advancements, China remained mostly agricultural and underdeveloped compared to the West. Foreign-run industries did not help China become self-sufficient.
- Unbalanced Trade: China produced valuable goods like silk and tea, but foreign products flooded the market, worsening China’s economic situation.
Resistance and Adaptation by the Chinese
- Rebellions: The problems caused by Western imperialism led to uprisings:
- Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864): A major revolt aiming to end Qing rule and Western influence.
- Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901): A nationalist uprising against foreign control, which was ultimately defeated.
- Reform Movements: In response to foreign pressure and government failures, several reform efforts emerged:
- Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s–1890s): Focused on modernizing military and industry while keeping Confucian values.
- Hundred Days’ Reform (1898): A brief attempt to modernize China, which was stopped by conservative forces.
- Intellectual Movements: The May Fourth Movement in 1919 was a reaction to the Qing Dynasty’s failures, promoting new ideas about science, democracy, and nationalism.
In conclusion, Western imperialism led to significant changes in China’s society, culture, and economy. While foreign powers profited greatly, the Qing Dynasty’s inability to respond effectively led to its downfall and the rise of new political and social structures in China.