In this post, notes of “Unit 4: USA in the World Politics” from “DSC- 3: History of USA: reconstruction to New age Politics” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
1. Imperialistic Ambition and Power
– The Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War was an important fight between the United States and Spain. It showed that the U.S. was becoming a world power and ended Spain’s control over its colonies in the Americas. Here are the main points about why the war happened, what happened during it, and its results.
– Causes and context of the war
Several things led to the Spanish-American War:
a. Cuba’s Fight for Freedom
Cuba, a colony of Spain, had been trying to gain independence since the 1860s. The violence against Cuban people by Spanish troops upset many, and Americans supported the Cuban rebels. U.S. businesses, especially sugar farms, were also hurt by the conflict.
b. Sensational News Reporting
American newspapers, particularly those owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, wrote exaggerated stories to create anger against Spain. This type of reporting, known as “yellow journalism,” made people see Spain as cruel and helped gain support for the war.
c. Sinking of the USS Maine
The immediate cause of the war was the sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898. Although the reason for the explosion was unclear, American newspapers blamed Spain, which increased anger toward the country. The phrase “Remember the Maine!” became a call to fight.
d. U.S. Desire to Expand
President William McKinley wanted the U.S. to grow its influence and territory. The war was seen as a chance to show American power in the Caribbean and the Pacific and to challenge European control in the area.
– Key events and battles
The war lasted about four months, from April to August 1898, and was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific.
a. Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898)
The war started with a naval battle in the Philippines. The U.S. Navy, led by Commodore George Dewey, defeated the Spanish fleet, giving the U.S. control of the Philippines.
b. Battle of San Juan Hill (July 1, 1898)
In Cuba, U.S. forces, led by Major General William Shafter and Theodore Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, fought Spanish troops. The U.S. won this battle, which was a key moment in the war in Cuba.
c. Naval Battle of Santiago de Cuba (July 3, 1898)
After the victory at San Juan Hill, the U.S. Navy, under Admiral William T. Sampson, destroyed the Spanish fleet in Santiago de Cuba. This ended Spain’s ability to defend its colonies in the Americas.
– Outcomes and consequences for the USA and Spain
a. Results for the U.S.:
- New World Power: The war made the U.S. a global power. The U.S. gained former Spanish territories, increasing its military and economic presence.
- Control of Territories:
- Cuba became a U.S. protectorate, meaning it was independent but the U.S. could interfere in its affairs.
- Puerto Rico and Guam were given to the U.S.
- The Philippines was bought for $20 million, making it an American colony.
- Stronger Military: The victory improved the U.S. Navy, showing that the U.S. was a major force in the Americas.
b. Results for Spain:
- Loss of Empire: The war ended Spain’s colonial empire in the Americas and the Pacific. Losing Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam meant Spain lost its influence in these areas.
- Economic and Political Problems: The defeat caused issues in Spain, which was already struggling internally. Spain’s decline as a world power became clear, and it faced economic challenges from losing its colonies.
– Treaty of Paris (1898) and its impact
The Treaty of Paris, signed on December 10, 1898, officially ended the Spanish-American War and had major effects for both countries.
Key Points of the Treaty:
- Territory Changes:
- Cuba was declared independent but under U.S. control.
- Puerto Rico and Guam were given to the U.S.
- The Philippines was sold to the U.S. for $20 million, despite the wishes of Filipino nationalists who wanted independence.
- End of Spanish Rule: The treaty marked the official end of Spain’s colonies in the Americas and the Pacific.
Effects of the Treaty:
- U.S. Imperialism: The treaty began a time of American expansion. The U.S. started to manage its new territories, leading to debates about America’s role as an imperial power. Some people opposed taking the Philippines, arguing it went against American values of democracy.
- Economic and Military Growth: Gaining new territories gave the U.S. important naval bases and markets, extending its influence in trade and global affairs. This also shaped U.S. foreign policy, leading to more involvement in international issues.
- Philippine-American War: The takeover of the Philippines led to a conflict as Filipinos, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, fought for their independence. This war was bloody and resulted in the U.S. victory, establishing the Philippines as an American colony.
Conclusion
The Spanish-American War changed both the United States and Spain. For the U.S., it marked the rise of a new global power, while for Spain, it meant losing its colonial empire. The Treaty of Paris (1898) changed the balance of power worldwide, with the U.S. gaining new territories and showing its dominance in the Americas and the Pacific. The war also sparked discussions about American expansion and its role in international politics, which continued into the 20th century.
– Role of USA in East Asia
The United States has had an important impact on the politics, economy, and military in East Asia. This involvement changed a lot from the late 1800s to the early 1900s, as the U.S. moved from being isolated to being more active and expanding its reach. Important parts of this involvement include the Open-Door Policy in China, U.S. actions in the Philippines, and relations with Japan and other East Asian countries.
– Expansionist policies and the Open Door Policy in China
a. The Open Door Policy (1899–1900)
The Open Door Policy was a key part of U.S. foreign policy in East Asia, especially in China. It was announced by U.S. Secretary of State John Hay in 1899. The main goals were to make sure all countries could trade fairly in China and to stop any one country from controlling Chinese trade or land.
Background:
- Foreign Control in China: By the late 1800s, China was weakened by problems at home (like the Boxer Rebellion in 1899) and pressure from foreign countries. European nations and Japan had taken control of different areas in China, giving them special rights to trade and access resources.
- U.S. Business Interests: The U.S. wanted American businesses to trade freely in China without competition from European or Japanese powers. American businesses were increasingly interested in the Chinese market.
Main Points of the Open Door Policy:
- Fair Trade Access: The U.S. asked other countries to allow all nations to trade freely in their areas in China.
- Protection of China’s Sovereignty: The U.S. opposed any foreign countries trying to take control of Chinese land and wanted to keep China independent.
Results:
- Short-Term Success: The policy was a win for the U.S. because it allowed American businesses to enter China without facing strong competition from other foreign powers.
- Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901): The Boxer Rebellion was a violent protest against foreign influence in China. The U.S. joined other countries to help put down the rebellion, showing its influence in China.
- Long-Term Effects: Although the policy did not stop foreign control of China, it set a precedent for U.S. involvement in East Asia. The idea of influencing a region without direct control became important for U.S. policy.
– US involvement in the Philippines
The Philippines became important to U.S. foreign policy after the Spanish-American War in 1898. The U.S. bought the Philippines from Spain for $20 million, marking the start of American control in the Pacific and causing controversy in both the U.S. and the Philippines.
a. The Philippine-American War (1899–1902)
After taking control, Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, fought for independence. The war from 1899 to 1902 was brutal, with the U.S. using harsh tactics, resulting in many civilian deaths.
- Causes: The Philippines had been fighting for independence from Spain. When the U.S. took control, Filipinos expected freedom but instead faced American rule.
- Outcome: The U.S. defeated the Filipino forces, capturing Aguinaldo in 1901, and the war ended in 1902. A civilian government was set up under U.S. control, focusing on integration and development.
b. The Philippines Under U.S. Rule:
- Economic Growth: The Philippines became a key military base for the U.S. in the Pacific. The U.S. invested in infrastructure and businesses.
- Cultural Changes: The U.S. introduced a Western education system, with English as the official language. Some Filipinos appreciated the improvements, while others resented American cultural influence.
- Independence: The Philippines remained under U.S. control until 1946, when it gained independence after World War II.
– Relations with Japan and other East Asian countries
The U.S. has had a complex relationship with Japan and other East Asian nations, marked by both cooperation and conflict.
a. U.S.-Japan Relations:
- Early Relations: The U.S. began engaging Japan in the mid-19th century. The Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854 opened Japanese ports to American trade, ending Japan’s isolation. This was done by Commodore Matthew Perry, who arrived with a fleet to push for trade.
- Japan’s Growth: Japan quickly modernized after opening to the West and sought to expand its influence, leading to tensions with other powers, including the U.S.
- Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905): The U.S. supported Japan in its war against Russia, which ended in Japan’s victory. The Treaty of Portsmouth, arranged by President Theodore Roosevelt, recognized Japan’s power in East Asia.
- Racial Tensions: Tensions grew due to Japanese immigration to the U.S., especially on the West Coast, where discrimination occurred. In 1907, the U.S. and Japan agreed to limit Japanese immigration.
- World War II (1941–1945): Relations worsened in the 1930s and 1940s, especially after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, leading the U.S. to enter World War II. After Japan’s defeat in 1945, it was occupied by the U.S. and underwent major reforms.
b. Relations with Other East Asian Countries:
- Korea: The U.S. had little direct involvement in Korea initially, but by the early 20th century, Korea was under Japanese control. After World War II, Korea was divided into North and South, with the U.S. supporting the South during the Korean War (1950–1953).
- China: The U.S. had a complicated relationship with China. It pushed for the Open Door Policy for fair trade. After World War II, the U.S. supported the Nationalist government during the Chinese Civil War. After the Communists took power in 1949, the U.S. backed the Nationalists on Taiwan.
Conclusion
The United States’ role in East Asia changed a lot from the late 1800s to the early 1900s, influenced by its expansionist policies, the Open Door Policy in China, involvement in the Philippines, and complicated relations with Japan and other East Asian countries. The U.S. aimed to increase its economic and strategic influence in the region through both diplomacy and military action, laying the groundwork for its ongoing involvement in East Asia.
– Role of USA in Latin America
The United States has significantly influenced Latin America, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries. Through policies like the Monroe Doctrine, military actions, and economic control, the U.S. affected the region’s politics and economy. Below is a simple overview of the U.S. role in Latin America.
– The Monroe Doctrine and its implications
a. Background:
The Monroe Doctrine was a key part of U.S. foreign policy, introduced by President James Monroe on December 2, 1823. It stated that European countries should not colonize or interfere in the Americas, and if they did, the U.S. would respond.
Main Points:
- No New Colonies: Monroe told European countries not to create new colonies in Latin America.
- Non-Interference: The U.S. promised not to get involved in European affairs and expected Europe to stay out of the Americas.
- U.S. Influence: This doctrine made the U.S. the main power in the Americas.
b. Effects:
- Power Shift: The doctrine showed that the U.S. saw itself as the defender of the Americas against European control.
- Latin America’s View: Many Latin American countries initially liked the doctrine for protection, but later felt it allowed U.S. interference.
- U.S. Growth: The Monroe Doctrine helped the U.S. gain more political and economic power in the region.
– Roosevelt Corollary and Big Stick Diplomacy
a. Roosevelt Corollary (1904)
The Roosevelt Corollary was added to the Monroe Doctrine by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904. It stated that the U.S. could intervene in Latin American countries if there was disorder that could affect U.S. interests.
Main Points:
- Stabilizing the Region: The U.S. claimed the right to step in to help stabilize Latin American countries.
- Preventing European Interference: The Corollary aimed to keep European countries from getting involved in the Americas.
b. Big Stick Diplomacy:
This approach meant using negotiation when possible but also being ready to use military force to protect U.S. interests.
- Military Actions: Roosevelt used military force to maintain U.S. influence, including the building of the Panama Canal.
c. Impact:
- U.S. Control: The Corollary strengthened U.S. control in Latin America and shifted focus from preventing European actions to managing local politics.
- Latin American Resentment: Many Latin American countries disliked U.S. interventions, seeing them as imperialistic.
– Interventions in Latin American countries (e.g., Panama, Cuba)
The U.S. intervened in several Latin American countries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often claiming to protect American interests or keep peace.
a. Panama Canal (1904–1914):
The U.S. supported Panama’s independence from Colombia in 1903 and took control of the Panama Canal project, which was completed in 1914.
- Importance: The canal was crucial for U.S. trade and military movement.
b. Cuba and the Platt Amendment (1901):
After the Spanish-American War, the U.S. controlled Cuba and included the Platt Amendment in its constitution, allowing U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs.
- Military Presence: The U.S. intervened in Cuba several times to protect its interests.
c. Nicaragua (1909-1933):
The U.S. intervened multiple times in Nicaragua to protect American business interests and maintain order.
d. Haiti and the Dominican Republic:
The U.S. occupied both Haiti (1915-1934) and the Dominican Republic (1916-1924) to keep order and protect American financial interests.
– Economic and political influence in the region
a. Economic Influence:
- U.S. Investments: American businesses had major investments in Latin America, especially in sugar, mining, and oil.
- Dollar Diplomacy (1909–1913): This policy encouraged American businesses to invest in Latin America, with the U.S. government providing support to protect those investments.
- Economic Dependence: Many Latin American countries became reliant on the U.S. for trade and financial support.
b. Political Influence:
- Support for Friendly Governments: The U.S. often backed governments that favored American interests, even if they were oppressive.
- Stability Efforts: Interventions were often justified as efforts to maintain political stability, but they were really about keeping pro-U.S. governments in power.
Conclusion
The U.S. has played a complex role in Latin America, using diplomacy, military force, and economic influence to shape the region’s politics and economy. Policies like the Monroe Doctrine and Roosevelt Corollary helped define U.S. actions in Latin America.
2. USA in the First and Second World Wars
– USA in World War I
The United States joined World War I in 1917, even though it had stayed neutral since the war began in 1914. This decision had major effects on the U.S. and the world. Here’s a simple overview of why the U.S. entered the war, what it did during the conflict, how it affected life at home, and its role in the peace talks after the war, especially the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations.
– Reasons for US entry into the war
When World War I started in 1914, the U.S., led by President Woodrow Wilson, chose to stay neutral. However, several reasons pushed the U.S. to join the Allies (mainly France, Britain, and Russia).
a. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare (German Attacks)
One key reason for entering the war was Germany’s decision to attack any ship near Britain without warning.
- Lusitania Incident (1915): In May 1915, a British ship called the Lusitania, with 128 Americans on board, was sunk by a German submarine. The U.S. was upset but didn’t join the war at first. However, Germany kept attacking American ships, which angered the U.S. and violated its rights.
- The Sussex Pledge (1916): After another ship, the Sussex, was sunk, Germany promised to limit its submarine attacks. But in early 1917, Germany started unrestricted submarine warfare again, threatening all ships.
b. The Zimmermann Telegram (1917)
Another important reason was the Zimmermann Telegram. This was a secret message from Germany to Mexico suggesting that if the U.S. joined the war, Mexico should ally with Germany. Germany promised to help Mexico get back the states of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
- Public Anger: When the British shared this message with the U.S., the American people were furious. They saw this as a direct threat, which pushed the U.S. closer to war.
c. Economic Interests
The U.S. had strong economic ties with the Allies. American banks had lent a lot of money to Britain and France, and if the Central Powers (Germany and its allies) won, it could hurt the U.S. economy.
- Trade: The U.S. was also trading more with the Allies, and helping them win would protect these trade relationships.
d. Ideological Motivation:
President Wilson framed the U.S. involvement as a fight for democracy. He wanted a world where democratic values and cooperation were important.
– Key contributions and battles involving US forces
When the U.S. declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917, it joined the Allies, but its military was not fully ready. Still, American contributions were vital to the Allied victory.
a. Mobilization of the U.S. Military
- Selective Service Act (1917): The U.S. quickly prepared for war by requiring men aged 21 to 30 to register for the draft. Over 4 million Americans served, with about 2 million going to Europe.
- Training and Deployment: U.S. forces, known as the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), were led by General John J. Pershing and trained in France.
b. Major Battles Involving U.S. Forces:
- Battle of Cantigny (May 1918): The first major American attack, where U.S. forces captured Cantigny from the Germans, boosting Allied morale.
- Battle of Belleau Wood (June 1918): A famous battle where American Marines helped stop the German advance, showing American bravery.
- Second Battle of the Marne (July–August 1918): U.S. forces helped halt the German push, marking the start of the final offensive leading to Germany’s surrender.
- Meuse-Argonne Offensive (September–November 1918): The largest American battle, with over 1 million soldiers, which helped break German lines and led to the armistice in November 1918.
c. American Contribution to Allied Morale and Resources:
- Supplies: The U.S. provided a lot of food, weapons, and materials to the Allies, strengthening their efforts.
- Naval Support: The U.S. Navy helped protect shipping routes and countered German submarine threats.
– Impact on the home front: economy, society, and politics
a. Economic Changes:
- War Production: The U.S. economy changed significantly to support the war. The War Industries Board organized production for war materials.
- Government Spending: The government spent a lot, increasing national debt, and used Liberty Bonds to raise money from citizens.
- Labor Demand: The war created jobs, especially for women and African Americans, as many women took on roles traditionally held by men.
b. Social Changes:
- Women’s Roles: More women entered the workforce, helping the women’s suffrage movement. In 1920, women gained the right to vote.
- African Americans and the Great Migration: Many African Americans moved from the South to the North for better jobs in war industries.
c. Political and Civil Liberties:
- Espionage and Sedition Acts (1917–1918): The government passed laws limiting free speech, making it illegal to criticize the war or the government, leading to the prosecution of some dissenters.
- Propaganda: The government used propaganda to gain public support for the war, producing posters and films to encourage enlistment and war bond purchases.
– The Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations
a. The Treaty of Versailles (1919)
The Treaty of Versailles, signed on June 28, 1919, officially ended World War I. It included important rules, many influenced by Wilson’s Fourteen Points, though not all were accepted.
- Punishment for Germany: Germany was blamed for the war and had to pay reparations. It lost territory and had its military limited.
- New Nations: The treaty led to the breakup of empires and the creation of new countries in Europe.
- Self-Determination: Wilson wanted ethnic groups to choose their governance, but this was only partially achieved, often leading to future conflicts.
b. The League of Nations:
- Wilson’s Goal: Wilson wanted to create the League of Nations to prevent future wars. It was included in the Treaty of Versailles.
- U.S. Rejection of the League: The U.S. Senate did not approve the Treaty, mainly over concerns that the League could involve the U.S. in future conflicts. This weakened the League’s effectiveness.
Conclusion
The U.S. entering World War I changed both the war and the country’s role in the world. America’s military and economic support were crucial to winning the war, but its involvement in the peace talks was complicated due to domestic opposition. The war’s impact on U.S. foreign policy was significant, leading to a more cautious approach in the following decades.
– USA in World War II
World War II was a major event in the 20th century, and the United States played an important role in the war. When the U.S. joined the war in 1941, it moved away from its earlier stance of not getting involved in foreign conflicts. By the end of the war in 1945, the U.S. became one of the two superpowers in the world, alongside the Soviet Union. This text looks at why the U.S. got involved, the key battles, how it helped the Allies win, the effects at home, and what happened after the war.
– Causes leading to US involvement (e.g., Pearl Harbor)
a. Rise of Dictatorships
Before the war, aggressive actions by dictators in Germany, Italy, and Japan threatened peace around the world.
- Nazi Germany: Led by Adolf Hitler, Germany broke international agreements and invaded several countries, including Poland and France.
- Fascist Italy: Under Benito Mussolini, Italy invaded Ethiopia and tried to expand in North Africa.
- Imperial Japan: Japan invaded China and aimed to take control of parts of Asia.
b. Isolationism
At first, the United States wanted to stay out of the war, following a policy of isolationism after World War I. The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s helped keep the U.S. away from foreign wars.
c. Economic Factors:
- Lend-Lease Act (1941): Although neutral, the U.S. started to help the Allies by supplying military aid to countries fighting against the Axis powers, like Britain and the Soviet Union.
- Economic Sanctions on Japan: Japan’s actions led the U.S. to impose economic sanctions, including cutting off oil exports, which were vital for Japan’s war efforts.
d. Attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941)
The U.S. entered the war after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, a naval base in Hawaii. This attack killed over 2,400 Americans and led the U.S. to declare war on Japan the next day. Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. shortly after.
– Major military campaigns and battles (e.g., D-Day, Pacific Theater)
The United States fought mainly in two areas: Europe (against Germany and Italy) and the Pacific (against Japan).
a. European Theater:
- D-Day (June 6, 1944): The largest amphibious invasion in history, Allied forces landed in Normandy, France, to begin freeing Western Europe from Nazi control.
- Battle of the Bulge (December 1944–January 1945): The last major attack by Germany in the West occurred, but the Allies, including the U.S., successfully fought back.
- Air Campaigns: The U.S. Air Force bombed German cities to destroy their military capabilities.
b. Pacific Theater:
- Battle of Midway (June 4–7, 1942): A crucial naval battle where the U.S. Navy defeated Japan, marking a turning point in the Pacific War.
- Island Hopping Campaign: The U.S. captured essential islands while avoiding heavily defended ones, bringing them closer to Japan.
- The Atomic Bomb: The U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan’s surrender.
– Role of the US in the Allied victory
The U.S. made significant military and economic contributions to the Allied war effort.
a. Military Contribution:
- Soldiers and Strategy: The U.S. sent millions of troops and played a key role in military planning and leadership.
- Lend-Lease Aid: The U.S. provided the Allies with tanks, planes, and food, helping them continue fighting.
- Production Power: The U.S. quickly shifted its economy to produce war materials, becoming the main supplier of equipment.
b. Economic Support:
The U.S. provided important economic help, which was vital for the war efforts of both the military and the Allies.
– Impact on the home front: wartime economy, propaganda, and social changes
a. Wartime Economy:
- Economic Mobilization: The war changed the U.S. economy, leading to a huge increase in war production.
- Jobs: The war created millions of jobs and pulled the U.S. out of the Great Depression. Women and minorities found work in factories.
- War Bonds: The government sold war bonds to help fund the war.
b. Propaganda:
- The Office of War Information created materials to encourage patriotism and support for the war.
- “Rosie the Riveter” became a symbol of women working in factories.
c. Social Changes:
- Women: Many women took on jobs traditionally held by men, leading to changes in gender roles.
- African Americans: Many African Americans moved to cities for jobs, increasing political activism and setting the stage for the Civil Rights Movement.
- Japanese-American Internment: After Pearl Harbor, many Japanese Americans were forced into internment camps, losing their homes and businesses.
– Post-war outcomes: United Nations, Marshall Plan, and global leadership
a. The United Nations (1945):
After the war, the U.S. helped create the United Nations, an organization aimed at promoting peace and cooperation.
b. The Marshall Plan (1948):
The U.S. provided over $12 billion to help rebuild European economies after the war, aiming to prevent the spread of communism.
c. Global Leadership:
The U.S. became one of the two superpowers, along with the Soviet Union, and took on a leadership role in promoting democracy and capitalism worldwide.
Conclusion
World War II greatly affected the United States. It played a key role in the Allied victory and led to major social and economic changes at home. After the war, the U.S. emerged as a global leader, helping to establish institutions like the United Nations and rebuilding Europe through the Marshall Plan. The effects of World War II still influence global politics and U.S. foreign policy today.