In this post, notes of “Unit 6: Gendering Comparative Politics” from “DSC – 5: Mathods and approaches in comparative political analysis” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
The Gender Lacuna in Comparative Politics
Introduction to Gender Lacuna (Gender gap)
What Gender Lacuna (Gender Gap) Means:
The “gender gap” is the missing focus on gender issues in the study of comparative politics. This gap shows that the field has often ignored or downplayed gender’s role in understanding political events. Recognizing this gap is important because it shows the limits of earlier political studies, which mainly looked at male perspectives and did not consider how gender affects politics.
Historical Background of Gender Lacuna in Comparative politics:
The study of comparative politics started at a time when male leadership was common, especially in the Western world. This led to a lack of attention to gender in political analysis. It wasn’t until the feminist movements in the mid-20th century that researchers began to point out the need to include gender in political studies. The rise of gender studies and feminist theories emphasized the importance of adding gender perspectives to the study of comparative politics.
This section discusses how the past lack of focus on gender in political studies influenced early comparative politics and why it is important to address this gap now.
Identifying Gaps in comparative politics
Areas Missing Gender Analysis:
In comparative politics, some areas have not included gender analysis, such as:
– Political Participation: Research often looks only at male politicians and misses how gender affects the political involvement of women and other groups.
– Electoral Systems: Studies often do not consider how different voting systems affect women’s chances of being elected and the challenges they face in gaining political office.
– Public Policy: Gender analysis is often left out in areas like economic, social, and foreign policy, ignoring how these policies impact men and women differently.
– Political Institutions: The study of places like legislatures and political parties often does not consider how these spaces are influenced by gender, showing that men hold most leadership roles.
– Conflict and Peace Studies: The different ways war affects men and women and the role of women in peace efforts are often not included in research.
Impact on Political Studies
The lack of gender analysis in these areas has led to several problems:
– Incomplete Theories: Political theories are often made without thinking about gender, leading to a one-sided view of political power and participation.
– Underrepresentation of Women: Not focusing on gender has led to fewer women in political leadership roles.
– Limited Policy Insights: Without considering gender, public policies often do not meet the specific needs of women and gender minorities, causing unfair results.
– Support of Patriarchy: Ignoring gender has helped maintain male dominance in political systems, pushing women and other genders to the sidelines in politics and academic studies.
Fixing these gaps is important for a better and more inclusive understanding of political systems around the world.
Theoretical Perspectives
Feminist Theories in Comparative Politics
Feminist theories help challenge the old ways of looking at politics that focus mostly on men. They argue that gender should be a major part of understanding political systems, behaviors, and power. Some key feminist ideas include:
– Liberal Feminism: This approach aims for equal rights for women within current political systems by promoting changes in laws and institutions. Liberal feminists believe in getting more women involved in politics and ensuring they have the same opportunities as men.
– Radical Feminism: This view claims that male dominance is deeply rooted in political systems. Radical feminists believe we need to change the entire political system to fix gender-based inequalities.
– Postcolonial Feminism: This perspective looks at how gender connects with race, class, and colonial history. Postcolonial feminists criticize traditional political studies for focusing too much on Western views and argue for including voices from the Global South, highlighting the specific challenges women face in these areas.
– Intersectional Feminism: Created by Kimberlé Crenshaw, this theory shows how different identities (like race, class, and sexuality) affect women’s experiences in politics. It suggests that we should analyze gender from multiple angles in political studies.
These feminist theories point out that studying politics without considering gender is not complete.
Contributions of Key Scholars
– Carole Pateman: She is an important figure in feminist political theory who critiques traditional ideas that often leave women out. In her book The Sexual Contract, she argues that political systems were mainly made to benefit men.
– Anne Phillips: A prominent thinker in feminist democracy, Phillips talks about the “politics of presence,” which means having women represented in political spaces. She criticizes traditional democratic ideas for ignoring gender and calls for more inclusive political systems.
– Cynthia Enloe: Enloe studies how gender affects global politics and conflicts. Her work on women’s roles in war and diplomacy brings important insights to political studies, especially regarding peace and security.
– Judith Squires: Squires focuses on gender quotas, representation, and the obstacles women face in politics. She helps us understand how electoral systems and political parties influence gender equality.
These scholars have deepened our understanding of politics by showing how important gender is in analyzing power, participation, and political systems across different societies.
Political Representation: Women in Government and Politics
Historical Overview
Evolution of Women’s Political Representation
– History of Women’s Political Role:
Women have gradually moved from being excluded to being included in politics around the world. In the past, women could not vote or hold office, and politics was seen as a man’s area. Over time, movements for women’s rights grew, leading to more women voting, legal changes, and women taking on government roles.
– Early Exclusion: For many years, women were kept out of political decision-making.
– First Wave of Feminism: In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the first wave of feminism focused on getting women the right to vote and be involved in politics.
– Post-Suffrage: After many women won the right to vote, the next step was to get into political offices, which is still a challenge today as women remain underrepresented in many areas.
Important Events and Movements:
– Women’s Suffrage Movements:
– New Zealand (1893): The first country to let women vote.
– United States (1920): The 19th Amendment gave women the right to vote after years of work by activists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
– United Kingdom (1928): The law allowed all women over 21 to vote after some could vote in 1918.
– India (1950): Women got the right to vote when the country became independent.
– Women in Political Office:
– First Female Parliamentarians: Women like Constance Markievicz (UK, 1918) and Nellie McClung (Canada) were early examples of women in government.
– First Female Leaders: Women like Sirimavo Bandaranaike (Sri Lanka, 1960) and Indira Gandhi (India, 1966) showed that women could be in top political positions.
– Second-Wave Feminism (1960s-1980s): This wave focused on not just legal equality but also on fighting deeper issues of discrimination, including in politics. It led to more feminist political groups and stronger pushes for women’s rights.
– Recent Progress:
– Gender Quotas: Many countries, especially in Europe and Latin America, started using gender quotas in the late 20th century to boost women’s numbers in government. These quotas helped reduce the gender gap in political representation.
– UN Women: The United Nations created UN Women in 2010 to help promote gender equality and increase women’s political involvement.
– Examples of Success: Countries like Rwanda, which has many women in parliament, and Scandinavian countries are examples of how women can have strong political representation through legal and social changes.
The history of women’s political representation shows the ongoing fight for gender equality and how political systems are changing to include more women. These key events highlight the movements and successes that have shaped women’s roles in politics today.
2. Current Status of Women’s Representation in Politics
Statistics and Trends in Women’s Representation
– Statistics and Trends:
Women’s representation in politics has improved a lot over the past few decades, but there are still differences between countries. According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) and UN Women:
– Global Averages: As of 2023, women hold about 26.5% of parliamentary seats worldwide. This is a big increase from previous years but is still far from equal representation (50%).
– Women Leaders: Only 12.3% of heads of state and 7.2% of heads of government are women. More women are getting into high positions, but the numbers are low compared to men.
– Key Roles: In many countries, women are still not well-represented in important decision-making jobs, especially in areas like defense and finance, which are mostly led by men.
Trends:
– Gender Quotas: Many countries are using gender quotas in political parties to ensure more women are represented. This is working well in places like Latin America, Europe, and some African countries.
– Regional Representation: Nordic countries like Sweden and Finland have high levels of women’s representation. In contrast, regions like the Middle East and South Asia have much lower numbers of women in government.
– Intersectionality: Women’s representation is also looked at by considering different backgrounds, showing that women from marginalized groups, like women of color or indigenous women, face even more barriers.
Comparison of Countries:
- High Representation:
– Rwanda: Leads the world with 61.3% of seats in parliament held by women. This is due to efforts after the genocide that focused on gender equality and constitutional gender quotas.
– Nordic Countries: Countries like Sweden (47%), Finland (46%), and Iceland (44%) have some of the highest female representation due to their strong support for gender equality and quotas.
– New Zealand: Under Jacinda Ardern, women make up over 48% of parliament.
- Moderate Representation:
– Latin America: Countries like Mexico and Bolivia have over 48% and 53% of women in their lower houses of parliament, thanks to gender quotas and reforms.
– Sub-Saharan Africa: Countries like South Africa (46%) and Senegal (43%) have higher female representation due to quotas, but many others lag behind due to cultural and economic barriers.
- Low Representation:
– Middle East and North Africa (MENA): This region has low levels of women’s political representation. Saudi Arabia and Kuwait have very few women in politics, while Jordan (15%) and Tunisia (31%) have better numbers due to recent changes.
– South Asia: Countries like India and Pakistan have low female representation, with women holding about 14% of seats in India’s lower house, despite discussions about reserving seats for women.
- Emerging Trends:
– Eastern Europe and Central Asia: Countries like Georgia and Ukraine are seeing a small rise in women’s representation with the use of gender quotas.
– United States: Women make up about 28% of Congress. The 2020 elections brought more women, especially women of color and younger women, into Congress, but the U.S. still falls behind many other democracies in gender equality in politics.
In summary, while there has been progress in women’s representation in politics worldwide, differences between regions still exist. Gender quotas, political support, cultural views, and economic factors all affect women’s ability to hold political office.
Challenges and Barriers to Women’s Political Representation
Social and Institutional Barriers
Women face many challenges that limit their roles in politics. These challenges often come from social norms and the way institutions are set up.
– Social Obstacles:
– Old Beliefs and Stereotypes: Many cultures still believe that politics is mainly for men, which discourages women from seeking political jobs. These stereotypes make people doubt women’s abilities as leaders.
– Extra Workload: Women often have to balance work and home duties (like chores and taking care of children), leaving them with little time for politics.
– Violence and Harassment: Women in politics often experience threats and bullying, both online and in real life, which can make them feel unsafe and reduce their participation.
– Few Role Models: In places where there are not many women in leadership, young women might not see anyone to look up to, which keeps the cycle of low representation going.
– Cultural and Religious Limits: In some areas, especially in parts of the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa, traditions limit women’s roles in public life, suggesting they should stay at home.
– Institutional Obstacles:
– Political Party Structures: Many political parties are still led by men, making it hard for women to get nominated. When they do get nominated, they are often put in less likely-to-win positions.
– Voting Systems: Some voting systems favor established male candidates, making it harder for women to get elected. Systems that allow for more equal representation are not common everywhere.
– Funding for Campaigns: Women often struggle to raise money for their campaigns because they have less access to donor networks, which is essential in competitive elections.
– Laws and Regulations: In some places, there are not enough laws to support equal representation of women in politics. Even when there are gender quotas, they might not be followed or enforced.
Strategies for Overcoming Challenges
– Ways to Overcome Challenges:
– Gender Quotas:
– Mandatory Quotas: Governments can create laws to require a certain number of women in legislative bodies. Countries like Rwanda, Mexico, and France have done this successfully.
– Party Quotas: Political parties can choose to set their own gender quotas to nominate more women. This has worked in some European and Latin American countries.
– Educating and Training Women:
Offering women political education and leadership training can prepare them for political roles. Organizations like the National Democratic Institute (NDI) and UN Women provide programs to help women build their political skills and confidence.
– Improving Funding for Women:
It is important to tackle financial barriers to ensure women can participate in politics. Some countries have started public funding systems or special funds for women candidates. For instance, in Tunisia, public funds are given based on the number of women candidates, encouraging parties to nominate more women.
– Encouraging Women’s Leadership in Parties:
Political parties should be pushed to promote women to leadership positions and ensure equal involvement in decision-making. Programs aimed at changing party cultures can help make parties more welcoming for women.
– Stopping Violence and Harassment:
Laws and measures need to be in place to protect women in politics from violence and harassment. Countries like Bolivia have passed laws to prevent violence against women in politics. Campaigns like NotTheCost raise awareness and fight against this issue.
– Changing Cultural Attitudes:
Media campaigns and community movements are important in changing social beliefs. Sharing success stories of women in politics can help change public views and encourage more women to get involved. Groups advocating for gender equality play a key role in this effort.
– Better Voting Systems:
Switching to voting systems that support equal representation can help women in politics. Countries like Sweden and South Africa that use these systems have more women elected. Some places also use systems that alternate male and female candidates to ensure balance.
Working on these barriers through legal changes, cultural shifts, and better institutional practices is important for achieving equal gender representation in politics. These strategies can help create a more open political environment where women can fully participate in governance.
Case Studies
Examples of Women in Leadership Roles
- Sirimavo Bandaranaike (Sri Lanka) – First Female Prime Minister in the World:
Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the first woman prime minister in 1960 and served three terms. She helped more women get involved in politics. Her government focused on social programs and independent foreign policies during the Cold War.
- Margaret Thatcher (United Kingdom) – First Female Prime Minister of the UK:
Margaret Thatcher, known as the “Iron Lady,” was the first female prime minister in the UK from 1979 to 1990. She is known for her conservative economic policies, like reducing the power of trade unions and promoting privatization. Her leadership changed UK politics and influenced conservative movements around the world.
- Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Liberia) – First Female President in Africa:
Ellen Johnson Sirleaf became Liberia’s president in 2006, making her the first female leader in Africa. She focused on rebuilding the country after a civil war, promoting peace, and fighting corruption. She won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2011 for her work on women’s rights and peace.
- Angela Merkel (Germany) – Chancellor of Germany (2005-2021):
Angela Merkel was Germany’s first female chancellor for 16 years. She was seen as a key leader in Europe, especially during crises like the financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. Her practical and cooperative style earned her respect worldwide.
- Jacinda Ardern (New Zealand) – Prime Minister of New Zealand:
Jacinda Ardern became the prime minister in 2017 and is known for her caring leadership. Her government handled the COVID-19 pandemic well and she responded compassionately to the Christchurch mosque shootings in 2019, leading to changes in gun laws.
Impact of Women’s Representation on Policy and Governance
- Social Welfare and Healthcare:
Women leaders often focus on social programs and healthcare, helping disadvantaged groups. For example:
– Ellen Johnson Sirleaf emphasized education and women’s rights in Liberia to rebuild the country.
– Michelle Bachelet (President of Chile) improved pensions and access to free education and healthcare, aiming to reduce inequality.
- Gender Equality and Women’s Rights:
Women leaders have made important progress in gender equality:
– Rwanda has the highest number of women in parliament globally, passing laws to improve women’s rights.
– Bolivia has over 50% women in parliament, successfully introducing laws against political harassment and violence towards women.
- Peacebuilding and Conflict Resolution:
Women leaders have played important roles in promoting peace:
– Ellen Johnson Sirleaf helped rebuild Liberia and promote peace after civil war.
– Sirimavo Bandaranaike worked on peace agreements during political troubles in Sri Lanka.
- Environmental Policy:
Women leaders support environmental protection:
– Jacinda Ardern focused on climate change and set goals to reduce carbon emissions in New Zealand.
– Gro Harlem Brundtland (former Prime Minister of Norway) introduced the idea of “sustainable development” in the 1987 Brundtland Report, influencing global environmental policy.
- Inclusive Governance and Representation:
More women in leadership leads to better governance. Women are more likely to create policies on child care, education, and health services that help everyone. Countries with more women in parliament often prioritize these important areas.
- Combating Corruption:
Studies show that women leaders are less likely to engage in corruption, leading to better accountability in governance. For example:
– Ellen Johnson Sirleaf focused on fighting corruption in Liberia and improved governance.
– Sonia Gandhi in India led anti-corruption efforts within her political party.
Women’s representation in politics brings different views and drives important policy changes that help gender equality, peace, social welfare, and environmental care. These examples show how women’s leadership can lead to fairer and more inclusive governance.