Sources of Indian history from 1600 – 1750s

In this post, notes of “Unit 1: Sources: Sanskrit Sources, Travelogues- Bernier and Manucci, Vernacular Literary Traditions- Mangal Kavya“ from “DSC- 1: History of India – VII: 1600 – 1750s” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.

Sanskrit Sources of History (1600-1750s)

Sanskrit texts give important information about ancient and medieval Indian history, showing the political, social, and cultural aspects of that time. Here are some key areas where these texts help us understand history.

Historical Chronicles and Epics

• Sanskrit texts as historical records:
  Sanskrit texts, especially epics and historical accounts, are important for understanding ancient India’s society, culture, and politics. They keep records of rulers, dynasties, and important events. Many were written as stories or religious texts but often provide historical information.
• Key works:
  • Rajatarangini: This is a history of the kings of Kashmir, written by Kalhana in the 12th century. It is one of the first texts to systematically document the region’s history, including the reigns and events of Kashmiri kings.
  • Puranas: These texts are mainly about myths but also provide valuable historical details. The Vishnu Purana, Brahmanda Purana, and Mudra Rakshasa include stories of royal families, the rise and fall of dynasties, and important events like city and empire foundations. They help in understanding ancient political history, mixing myths with facts.

Legal and Philosophical Texts

• Dharmasastras and their impact:
  Dharmaśāstras, like the Manusmriti, are important for understanding the rules and social order of ancient India. These texts offered guidelines on governance, the roles of rulers, and social relations, especially regarding the caste system and family laws.
• Influence of the Manusmriti on legal practices:
  The Manusmriti, written between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, greatly shaped Indian social and legal systems, especially the caste system. It discussed the duties of kings, moral behavior for subjects, and the importance of righteousness (dharma). Its ideas influenced Indian law and governance for many years, although they were adapted over time.

Religious and Ritualistic Literature

• Impact of Vedic and Upanishadic texts:
  The Vedas and Upanishads, while older, greatly influenced India’s spiritual and intellectual life from the 1600s to the 1750s. These texts established the basis for Hindu beliefs and practices, focusing on ideas like dharma, karma, moksha, and the self (atman).
• Religion and daily life through rituals:
  Vedic texts and religious literature influenced daily religious practices in Indian society. Rituals mentioned in texts like the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda were key to temple worship, festivals, and royal ceremonies, connecting human life to the cosmic order.

Sanskrit Poetry and Drama

• Cultural reflections in Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti’s works:
  Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti were important poets and playwrights whose works reflected the culture of their time. Kalidasa’s Shakuntala, Raghuvamsa, and Meghaduta are not only great literature but also show ideas about kingship, duty, love, and human relationships.
  • Kalidasa: His works, like Raghuvamsa, highlight good governance and how rulers should show courage, justice, and kindness. Nature and divine influence are also important in his stories, showing a deep spiritual connection.
  • Bhavabhuti: His play Uttararamacharita focuses on Lord Rama’s later life, emphasizing duty and righteousness. Bhavabhuti’s works explore the complex relationships between emotions, duty, and morality, helping us understand social values.
• Social norms and values in plays:
  Both poets illustrated values like respect for elders, loyalty, and family importance, as well as the moral struggles people face. Their plays showed the complexities of human emotions and the effects of moral choices, influencing social behavior and governance.

Commentaries and Scholarly Works

• Contributions of scholars like Abhinavagupta:
  Abhinavagupta was a key philosopher and commentator in Kashmir. His work on art and drama, especially his commentary on Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra, shaped classical art in India. He explored the deeper meanings of dance, drama, and poetry, linking art to spiritual understanding.
  • Scholarly impact: Abhinavagupta’s work connected artistic expression with spiritual growth, emphasizing that art helps achieve self-realization. His contributions were essential for the development of Kashmiri Shaivism and the intellectual culture of Kashmir.
• Preservation and interpretation of older texts:
  Scholars have played a vital role in keeping and interpreting earlier Sanskrit works. In the 1600-1750s, scholars wrote commentaries on older texts, ensuring that past cultural and philosophical ideas were not lost. For example, scholars in Mughal and Maratha courts often interpreted Hindu texts to fit the political and religious contexts of their time.

In conclusion, Sanskrit sources from the 1600s to the 1750s offered valuable insights into the legal, social, religious, and cultural life of India. These texts were not just historical records but also reflected the spiritual, philosophical, and moral concerns of their time, continuing to influence India long after they were written.

Travelogues – Bernier and Manucci

European travel writings from the 17th century give detailed accounts of India, showing how the Mughal Empire and Indian society worked. François Bernier and Niccolao Manucci are two key figures who shared their experiences in India, giving important insights, though shaped by their personal views. Their writings influenced how the West saw India and affected later historical accounts.

Introduction to European Travelers in India

• The rise of European exploration during the 17th century:
  In the 17th century, European exploration grew as they sought new trade routes, were curious about science, and wanted to build diplomatic ties. India, a rich and ancient land, attracted European travelers, traders, and diplomats, especially because of the wealth and culture of the Mughal Empire.
• Motivations behind these journeys—trade, curiosity, and diplomacy:
  The main reason for Europeans traveling to India was trade. They set up trading posts, like the Portuguese in Goa and the British in Surat, which boosted economic exchanges. Europeans were also curious about the East and sent diplomatic missions to Indian courts. Some travelers, like Bernier and Manucci, wanted to learn about the Mughal Empire and its society.

François Bernier

• 2.2.1 Background and Journey:
  François Bernier was a French doctor who came to India in the 1650s. He worked at the Mughal court under Emperor Aurangzeb for several years and traveled widely in India, studying the Mughal Empire’s political and social systems. His book, Travels in the Mogul Empire, published in 1670, is a famous European account of Mughal India.
• 2.2.2 Observations of the Mughal Empire:
  • Detailed accounts of Emperor Aurangzeb’s court:
    Bernier’s writings give a deep look at the Mughal court during Aurangzeb’s rule. He described the emperor’s strictness and focus on Islamic rules. Bernier was critical of Aurangzeb’s intolerance toward non-Muslims, especially compared to earlier emperors like Akbar.
  • Insights into administration, economy, and society:
    Bernier noted that the Mughal administration was efficient but very centralized. He discussed the taxation system, labor divisions, and social classes, highlighting both the empire’s wealth and the inequalities in Indian society, especially regarding caste.
• 2.2.3 Critical Analysis of Bernier’s Accounts:
  • Understanding his Eurocentric perspectives and biases:
    While Bernier provided valuable insights, his views were often influenced by a Western perspective that led to misunderstandings of Indian culture.
  • The impact of his works on European views of India:
    Bernier’s writings shaped how Europeans viewed India, portraying it as a land of beauty but also as one of tyranny and superstition.

Niccolao Manucci

• 2.3.1 Life and Adventures:
  Niccolao Manucci was an Italian who came to India as a young man. He worked in the Mughal Empire, first as a doctor and then at the Mughal court. He spent many years in India, learning about the Mughal court, especially under emperors like Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• 2.3.2 Storia do Mogor – His Magnum Opus:
  • Descriptions of political intrigue and daily life:
    Manucci’s Storia do Mogor is a major history of the Mughal Empire, focusing on Shah Jahan’s reign and the struggles for power that followed. His work details court intrigues like assassinations and palace coups, along with the relationships among Mughal nobles.
  • Accounts of wars, succession battles, and key historical events:
    Manucci also wrote about important wars and succession disputes in the Mughal Empire, including the battle for the throne among Shah Jahan’s sons. His accounts help us understand the internal politics of the Mughal court and its military efforts.
• 2.3.3 Assessing Manucci’s Narratives:
  • Reliability and exaggerations in his storytelling:
    Manucci’s stories are often exaggerated for effect. His writing style is lively but can mix facts with fiction, lacking strict historical accuracy.
  • Contribution to understanding the period’s socio-cultural fabric:
    Despite some exaggerations, Manucci’s work gives valuable insights into Mughal court life, tensions within the empire, and cultural practices of the time.

Comparative Study of Bernier and Manucci

• Contrasting their observations and experiences:
  • Bernier vs. Manucci on the Mughal court:
    Both wrote about the Mughal court but had different focuses. Bernier emphasized the political and economic aspects under Aurangzeb, often critical of the emperor’s policies. Manucci provided more detailed accounts of court life and power struggles, highlighting the personal stories of the Mughal elite.
  • The fusion of subjective experiences with factual reporting:
    Both travelers mixed personal experiences with facts. Bernier’s tone was more critical, especially of Aurangzeb, while Manucci’s writing focused more on the drama and intrigue of court life. Their different styles show their personal biases and cultural backgrounds.

Influence of Travelogues on Historical Writing

• Shaping Western perceptions of India:
  The travel writings of Bernier and Manucci greatly influenced how the West viewed India. They introduced European readers to the richness of the Mughal Empire, but often portrayed it as an exotic land full of luxury and tyranny.
• Their legacy in historical and cultural studies:
  Despite their biases, Bernier and Manucci’s works are important texts in the study of Mughal India. Their observations have been analyzed by historians, linking Western and Indian history. Their legacies continue to impact studies on India, especially in early modern South Asian history and colonialism.

In summary, the travel writings of Bernier and Manucci provide important yet subjective views of the Mughal Empire, shaped by their personal biases and the cultural context of their time. Their accounts remain valuable for understanding the period and are still analyzed by modern historians.

Vernacular Literary Traditions – Mangal Kavya

Mangal Kavya is an important type of Bengali literature that started in medieval Bengal. It plays a big role in the region’s culture and religion. This form of literature mixes spirituality, folk traditions, and social values, helping spread cultural beliefs and practices to many people. Let’s look closer at Mangal Kavya.

Introduction to Mangal Kavya

• Definition and origins:
  Mangal Kavya is a type of Bengali poetry that tells stories about gods, goddesses, and heroes. These poems are written in the local language, making them easy for everyone to understand. Mangal Kavya grew from the religious and folk traditions in Bengal, where storytelling and local rituals were important.
• Role in society and religion:
  Mangal Kavya served not just as literature but also as a way for people to connect with their spirituality and community. These poems were often recited or sung at religious events, teaching people about moral values and ethics. They played a key role in shaping the spiritual and cultural identity of the people in Bengal.

Major Themes and Deities

• 3.2.1 Chandi Mangal:
  • Worship of the goddess Chandi:
    One famous Mangal Kavya is the Chandi Mangal, which focuses on the worship of the goddess Chandi (a form of Durga). It shows Chandi as a strong goddess who protects her followers from evil. The stories emphasize the strength and courage of women and the goddess’s role in human lives.
• 3.2.2 Manasa Mangal:
  • Tales of the serpent goddess Manasa:
    The Manasa Mangal tells stories about the serpent goddess Manasa, who is worshipped for her powers over fertility and protection from snakebites. The tales often show her struggles for recognition and love from her followers. They include themes of loyalty, betrayal, and divine justice.
• 3.2.3 Dharma Mangal:
  • Stories about Dharma Thakur and justice:
    The Dharma Mangal highlights the worship of Dharma Thakur, a god associated with justice and ethics. It tells stories of how this god promotes fairness and encourages people to live good lives. The text emphasizes the need for justice and often criticizes wrongdoing in society.

Societal Impact of Mangal Kavya

• Reflection of rural life and customs:
  Mangal Kavya often shows rural life in Bengal, including farming, festivals, and family life. These stories reflect the social norms of the time and portray relationships among different social classes. They highlight the importance of rituals and community bonds.
• Promotion of moral values:
  Beyond religion, Mangal Kavyas promote values like honesty and social responsibility. They create a sense of unity among people by emphasizing collective well-being and family values.

Literary Devices and Style

• Use of metaphors and local dialects:
  Mangal Kavya uses rich metaphors and local language. It often uses allegories to teach spiritual lessons. The language makes these texts relatable to ordinary people, contributing to their popularity.
• From oral to written tradition:
  Mangal Kavya started as oral storytelling, where bards shared these poems in villages. Writing these texts down allowed them to reach more people and be preserved for future generations. However, the oral storytelling style remains strong.

Influence on Art and Culture

• Impact on folk arts like jatra (theatre):
  Mangal Kavya greatly influenced folk arts. For example, Jatra, a traditional Bengali theatre, often features stories from Mangal Kavya. These performances make the narratives lively and entertaining. Similarly, Patachitra (scroll painting) illustrates scenes from Mangal Kavyas, allowing people to engage with these stories visually.
• Preservation in modern times:
  Today, Mangal Kavya still influences cultural practices in Bengal. Its themes resonate with current audiences, and the blend of folk arts and storytelling keeps its spirit alive.

Mangal Kavya and Resistance

• Critique of societal norms:
  While mostly religious, Mangal Kavya also critiques social norms. Many stories call out rulers or wealthy individuals for their wrong actions, promoting a more just society.
• Resistance against oppression:
  The stories of Mangal Kavya often show how divine figures or the marginalized overcome injustice. These narratives represent a stand against societal norms that favor the powerful, promoting ideals of justice and fairness.

Conclusion

Mangal Kavya is a vital part of Bengali literature, showcasing how literature can shape beliefs, values, and cultural identity. Its stories of divine powers and social critiques make it an essential aspect of India’s literary and cultural heritage, continuing to influence art, theatre, and community life today.

By looking at these sources, you’re not just reading about history—you’re feeling the life of the past through the eyes of the people who lived then. The Sanskrit texts show us the ideas and beliefs of that time, while the travel writings of Bernier and Manucci give us an outsider’s view filled with interest and amazement. The Mangal Kavya highlights the local culture of Bengal, showing how local stories add to the bigger picture of Indian history.