In this post, notes of “Unit 7: Introduction to Israel’s Political System” from “DSC 17: Comparative Political Systems” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.

Introduction to Israel’s Political System

History of Israel’s Political System

Israel’s political system comes from old Jewish governance traditions and modern democratic ideas. The country was formed in 1948, influenced by Zionist beliefs, British rule, and Jewish community structures from outside Israel.

• Before 1948: During the British Mandate (1920–1948), Jewish groups like the Jewish Agency and Va’ad Leumi (National Council) helped with self-governance, setting the stage for Israel’s democratic system.
• 1948 Independence: Israel declared independence on May 14, 1948. The Declaration created a democratic system that promises equality and rights for all citizens.
• Building Political Institutions: Over time, Israel created a multi-party system, a parliamentary structure, and a judiciary that supports democratic values.

Main Features of Israel’s Parliamentary Democracy

Israel is a parliamentary democracy, meaning the government is made up of elected officials in the Knesset (Israel’s single-house legislature). Key points include:

1. The Knesset:
   • Has 120 members elected through proportional representation.
   • Elections happen every four years, but early elections often occur because of political issues.
   • It acts as both the law-making body and the group that approves the government.
2. The Executive Branch:
   • Led by the Prime Minister, who usually comes from the party that forms the ruling coalition.
   • The President of Israel has a mostly ceremonial role, while real power is with the government (cabinet).
3. The Judiciary:
   • An independent court system, with the Supreme Court being the highest legal authority.
   • It reviews government actions and protects democracy.
4. The Multi-Party System:
   • Israel has many political parties representing various beliefs, religions, and ethnic groups.
   • Coalition governments are common because it’s hard for one party to get a majority.
5. Religion’s Role:
   • Israel is officially a Jewish state, but it allows freedom of religion.
   • Religious parties have a strong influence, especially on marriage, conversion, and Sabbath rules.

The Importance of the Declaration of Independence

Israel’s Declaration of Independence (1948) is a key document that shapes the country’s political and legal system:

• Democratic Values: It promises equality for everyone, regardless of religion, race, or gender.
• Legal Influence: While Israel lacks a formal constitution, the Declaration helps guide Basic Laws, which act like constitutional rules.
• Balancing Jewish and Democratic Identity: The Declaration makes Israel both a Jewish state and a democracy, leading to ongoing discussions about how to balance these identities.

Conclusion

Israel’s political system is a unique mix of parliamentary democracy, multi-party governance, and religious-national identity. Despite challenges like unstable coalitions and tensions between religious and secular views, it remains a dynamic and developing democracy.

The Constitution of Israel

No Formal Written Constitution

Israel is different from many democracies because it does not have a single, formal written constitution. This is due to historical and political reasons:

• The 1948 Debate: When Israel was created, the Declaration of Independence called for a constitution. However, serious disagreements between religious and non-religious groups made it hard to agree on key issues, like the role of Jewish law in government.
• The Harari Decision (1950): The Knesset (Israel’s parliament) decided to make Basic Laws over time instead of drafting a complete constitution right away. These Basic Laws would eventually help form a constitution.
• Political and Religious Issues: Ongoing disagreements about whether Israel should be a secular democracy or a Jewish state based on religious laws have delayed the creation of a constitution.

Basic Laws in Governance

Without a constitution, Israel’s governance is based on Basic Laws, which act as the country’s main legal framework. These laws outline how the government works and protect basic rights.

1. Features of Basic Laws:
   • They are passed by the Knesset but can be changed or removed like regular laws, unless they have special rules that need a larger majority.
   • Some Basic Laws, like those on human rights, are seen by the Supreme Court as having a constitutional level of importance.
2. Important Basic Laws:
   • Basic Law: The Knesset – Details how Israel’s parliament works.
   • Basic Law: The Government – Describes the powers of the executive branch and the Prime Minister.
   • Basic Law: The Judiciary – Sets up an independent court system.
   • Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty (1992) – Offers protections for human rights.
   • Basic Law: Nation-State (2018) – States that Israel is the nation-state of the Jewish people, a law that has raised concerns about minority rights.

Key Principles

Israel’s legal and political system is based on three main ideas:

1. Democracy:
   • Israel is a parliamentary democracy, which means it has free elections, a separation of powers, and independent courts.
   • The Supreme Court is important for upholding democratic values.
2. Jewish Identity:
   • Israel identifies itself as a Jewish state, which leads to discussions about the role of Jewish law (Halakha) and religion in government.
   • The Law of Return (1950) allows Jews from anywhere to gain Israeli citizenship, supporting Israel’s Jewish identity.
3. Rule of Law:
   • Everyone, including government leaders, must follow the law and can be reviewed by courts.
   • The Supreme Court has made decisions about government power, religious freedom, and civil rights.

Debates on a Formal Constitution

The idea of creating a formal constitution is a hot topic in Israeli politics and law:

• Support for a Formal Constitution:
  • It would give a clear and stable legal system.
  • It could better protect civil rights and keep religion separate from politics.
  • It would prevent political misuse of Basic Laws.
• Opposition to a Formal Constitution:
  • Deep splits between secular and religious groups make it hard to reach an agreement.
  • Some worry it could weaken Israel’s Jewish nature.
  • Political parties like the current system’s flexibility.

Conclusion

Though Israel does not have a formal constitution, its Basic Laws serve as a legal framework. Ongoing political and ideological discussions continue about whether Israel should create a permanent constitution.

The Executive

Israel’s executive branch includes the President, Prime Minister, and Cabinet. This branch enforces laws, handles government matters, and makes decisions.

The President

The President of Israel serves as the head of state, but mainly has a symbolic role. The President is chosen by the Knesset for a seven-year term.

Main Duties of the President:

• Choosing the Prime Minister: After elections, the President picks the Knesset member who can form a coalition.
• Granting Pardons: Can forgive prisoners and change sentences.
• Ceremonial Tasks: Represents Israel at events, meets foreign ambassadors, and signs laws from the Knesset.
• Helping in Crises: Encourages compromise during government issues, even though the President does not take part in politics.

Even with limited powers, the President is seen as a moral leader, promoting unity and democracy.

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The Prime Minister

The Prime Minister is the head of government and has the most important power in Israel. They are usually the leader of the largest party in the ruling coalition and are officially appointed by the President.

Powers and Duties:

• Forms and Leads the Government: Chooses ministers (with Knesset approval).
• Sets National Policy: Manages domestic and foreign policy, security, and economy.
• Leads Cabinet Meetings: Heads weekly government meetings and guides policy decisions.
• Represents Israel Globally: Works on international relations, negotiates treaties, and makes foreign policy choices.

Limits on the Prime Minister:

• Depends on Coalition Support: Needs to keep support from a majority (61 out of 120 seats) in the Knesset, which makes it hard to govern.
• Oversight by Courts and Parliament: The Supreme Court and the Knesset can challenge government actions.
• No Fixed Term: The Prime Minister stays in power as long as they have support but can be removed by a no-confidence vote or party changes.

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The Cabinet

The Cabinet is made up of ministers, each in charge of a specific area (like Defense or Health). It carries out policies and manages national issues.

Cabinet Structure:

• Ministers: Chosen by the Prime Minister, some have key roles (like Defense or Justice).
• Deputy Ministers: Help ministers but do not have independent power.
• Security Cabinet: A smaller group that focuses on national security and military issues.

Decision-Making:

• Weekly Meetings: The Cabinet meets to discuss and approve policies.
• Majority Rule: Decisions require a majority vote, but the Prime Minister has a lot of influence.
• Ministerial Committees: Smaller groups that focus on specific topics (like security or economy).

The Cabinet’s success depends on the stability of the coalition—if parties leave, the government can fall apart, leading to early elections.

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The Legislature

The Knesset

The Knesset is Israel’s one-house parliament and makes laws. It has 120 members (MKs) elected every four years (unless there are early elections).

Key Features:

• Proportional Representation: Parties need at least 3.25% of the vote to enter the Knesset.
• Coalition Governments: No single party has a clear majority, so they must work together.
• Checks on Government: The Knesset monitors the executive branch, can hold votes of no confidence, and can dissolve itself.

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Powers of the Knesset

The Knesset has many powers, including:

1. Making Laws: Creates new laws and changes existing ones.
2. Approving the Government: The Prime Minister and Cabinet need Knesset approval.
3. Budget Control: Approves the national budget to keep the government accountable.
4. Oversight: Can investigate government actions and hold hearings.
5. Foreign Affairs: Involved in decisions on treaties, war, and defense.

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The Lawmaking Process

Steps to Make a Law:

1. Proposal: Bills can come from the government, Knesset members, or committees.
2. First Reading: The bill is discussed and voted on in the Knesset.
3. Committee Review: If passed, it goes to a relevant Knesset committee for changes.
4. Three Readings in the Knesset:
   • First Reading: General debate and vote.
   • Second Reading: Detailed discussion and possible changes.
   • Third Reading: Final vote to approve the bill.
5. Becoming Law: After passing, the bill is signed by the President, Prime Minister, and relevant ministers.

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Committees in the Knesset

Knesset committees are important for reviewing laws and government actions. There are two main types:

1. Permanent Committees (e.g., Foreign Affairs, Finance):
   • Review bills and suggest changes.
   • Hold hearings and question ministers or officials.
2. Special Committees (e.g., public health, women’s rights):
   • Address temporary issues needing attention.

Importance of Committees:

• Provide expert advice on laws.
• Increase government accountability.
• Allow public input through hearings.

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Conclusion

Israel’s executive and legislative branches work together in a coalition system. The President has a ceremonial role, while the Prime Minister and Cabinet hold real power but need Knesset approval. The Knesset is a strong legislative body, shaping laws through committees and lawmaking. However, the multi-party system often causes political instability, affecting how well the government functions.

The Judiciary in Israel

Israel’s judiciary is an independent branch of government that interprets laws, ensures justice, and upholds democratic values. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the rule of law, especially since Israel does not have a formal constitution.

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Structure and Levels of Courts in Israel

Israel has a three-level court system, which includes:

1. Magistrates’ Courts (First Instance Courts)

• The lowest level of courts, handling civil and criminal cases.
• Found in major cities across Israel.
• Deal with small claims, minor crimes, and local issues.

2. District Courts (Intermediate Level)

• Act as appeal courts for decisions from Magistrates’ Courts.
• Handle serious criminal, civil, and administrative cases.
• Located in major cities like Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Haifa.

3. The Supreme Court (Highest Court)

• Located in Jerusalem and serves as:
  • A Court of Appeals – hearing cases from lower courts.
  • The High Court of Justice (Bagatz) – reviewing government actions to ensure they follow Basic Laws.

Additionally, Israel has special courts, including:

• Religious courts (Jewish, Muslim, Christian, and Druze) for marriage, divorce, and religious matters.
• Military courts for cases involving the Israel Defense Forces (IDF).
• Labor courts for work-related disputes.

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The Role of the Supreme Court in Interpreting Basic Laws

Since Israel lacks a formal constitution, its Basic Laws function as a constitutional framework. The Supreme Court plays a crucial role in interpreting these laws, shaping Israel’s legal system.

• Judicial Precedent: The Court’s rulings set legal guidelines for lower courts.
• Human Rights Protections: Expanded rights under Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty.
• Constitutional Authority: In the 1990s, the Court ruled that Basic Laws have constitutional power, allowing it to strike down laws that conflict with them.

A key case:

• 1995 “Mizrahi Bank” Case: The Supreme Court asserted its right to overturn laws violating Basic Laws, marking a major constitutional shift.

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Judicial Review and Its Effects

Judicial review allows the Supreme Court to decide if laws or government actions violate Basic Laws.

Effects of Judicial Review:

1. Government Oversight: Prevents abuse of power by striking down unconstitutional laws.
2. Political Controversy: Some argue the Court has too much power, limiting elected officials.
3. Balancing Jewish and Democratic Values: The Court works to balance Israel’s Jewish identity with democratic principles.

Examples of Judicial Review:

• Overturning Laws: In 2021, the Court ruled against parts of the Nation-State Law, raising political debates.
• Protecting Rights: The Court has defended LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and asylum seekers.
• Security vs. Civil Liberties: It has ruled on security policies, sometimes limiting government actions to protect human rights.

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The Process for Appointing Judges

Unlike many countries where the government controls judicial appointments, Israel uses a Judicial Selection Committee to ensure judicial independence.

Judicial Selection Committee (9 Members):

1. 2 Supreme Court Justices (including the Chief Justice).
2. 2 Government Ministers (one must be the Justice Minister).
3. 2 Knesset Members (one from the ruling party, one from the opposition).
4. 2 Representatives from the Israel Bar Association.
5. 1 Public Representative (added in recent reforms).

Appointment Process:

• Magistrates’ and District Court Judges: Chosen by a simple majority of the Committee.
• Supreme Court Justices: Require at least 7 out of 9 votes for appointment.

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Controversy Over Judicial Appointments

• Some politicians argue that the selection process gives too much power to judges and legal experts, reducing government influence.
• Judicial reform proposals (2023–2024) aimed to increase government control over judge appointments, leading to mass protests and political division.

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Conclusion

Israel’s judiciary is independent and vital to democracy. The Supreme Court plays a central role in interpreting Basic Laws, reviewing government actions, and protecting civil rights. However, its power is politically controversial, with ongoing debates over judicial authority and reform efforts that could impact the balance of power between the judiciary and the government.

Political Parties and Elections in Israel

Israel has many political parties with different ideologies, leading to coalition governments and frequent elections. The proportional representation system often results in unstable coalitions.

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Main Political Parties and Their Ideas

Israeli politics is highly divided, with parties representing different ideologies, religions, and ethnic groups.

Main Political Groups

1. Right-Wing and Religious Parties

• Likud
  • Founded by Menachem Begin in 1973.
  • Supports a free market, strong security, and Jewish nationalism.
  • Led by Benjamin Netanyahu, Israel’s longest-serving Prime Minister.
• Religious Zionist Party
  • Advocates for expanding Jewish settlements and taking control of the West Bank.
  • Promotes religious values in government policies.
• Shas
  • Represents Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews.
  • Supports welfare programs but holds conservative religious views.
• United Torah Judaism (UTJ)
  • Represents Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) Jews.
  • Opposes secular laws and supports religious education and military exemptions for Haredim.

2. Center and Left-Wing Parties

• Yesh Atid
  • Founded by Yair Lapid, focusing on civil rights, secularism, and helping the middle class.
  • Supports mandatory military service for Haredim.
• National Unity
  • Led by Benny Gantz, promotes a strong military but is more open to negotiations than Likud.
• Labor Party
  • Historically dominant (founded by David Ben-Gurion).
  • Supports social justice, workers’ rights, and a two-state solution.
• Meretz
  • Advocates for human rights, LGBTQ+ rights, and peace with Palestinians.

3. Arab and Minority Parties

• Hadash-Ta’al
  • Supports Palestinian rights and social equality.
• Ra’am
  • Represents Arab citizens of Israel, focusing on Islamic values and social services.
  • First Arab party to join a coalition government (2021).

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Electoral System: Proportional Representation

Israel uses a proportional representation system for its elections.

Key Features:

1. 120 Knesset Seats: Parties receive seats based on their percentage of votes.
2. Threshold Requirement: A party must get at least 3.25% of votes (about 4 seats) to enter the Knesset.
3. Closed-List System: Voters choose a party, not individual candidates. Parties rank their candidates before elections.

Implications of the System:

• Political Fragmentation: Many small parties make it hard for one party to win a majority.
• Coalition Governments: Since no party wins alone, coalitions are necessary but often unstable.
• Frequent Elections: Coalitions break apart often, leading to early elections (e.g., five elections between 2019 and 2022).

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The Role of Political Parties in Coalition Politics

Because no single party gets a majority (61 Knesset seats), Israeli governments depend on coalitions.

Coalition Formation Process:

1. Election Results: The President consults party leaders to see who can form a government.
2. Coalition Negotiations: The leading party negotiates with others to secure at least 61 seats.
3. Government Formation: The Knesset votes to approve the coalition.

Challenges of Coalition Politics:

• Political Instability: If coalition partners leave, the government collapses, causing early elections.
• Policy Compromises: Different parties struggle to agree on laws and reforms.
• Religious-Secular Conflicts: Disagreements over issues like military service exemptions, LGBTQ+ rights, and civil marriage.

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Recent Trends in Israeli Elections and Party Politics

1. Increased Political Polarization

• Israeli politics is increasingly divided between right-wing and center-left factions.
• Netanyahu remains a controversial figure, with strong support from the right and opposition from the center-left.

2. Rise of Far-Right and Religious Parties

• The 2022 elections strengthened ultra-nationalist and religious parties, like the Religious Zionist Party and Shas.
• These parties now have greater influence on policies regarding settlements, judicial reforms, and religious laws.

3. Arab Parties’ Growing Role

• In 2021, Ra’am became the first Arab party to join a coalition government.
• However, Arab parties remain divided, which weakens their influence.

4. Judicial Reform Controversy (2023–2024)

• The Netanyahu government’s plan to limit Supreme Court power sparked mass protests and political turmoil.
• The reform debate created deep divisions between those supporting judicial independence and those wanting more government control.

5. Frequent Elections and Political Deadlock

• From 2019 to 2022, Israel held five elections due to coalition instability.
• The 2022 elections resulted in a far-right government, but opposition parties continue to challenge it.

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Conclusion

Israel’s multi-party system and proportional representation create a dynamic but unstable political environment. Coalition politics lead to frequent elections, policy compromises, and political conflicts. Recent trends include greater polarization, the rise of far-right parties, Arab parties gaining influence, and the judicial reform debate, all shaping the future of Israeli democracy.

Federalism and Local Governance in Israel

Israel has a unitary political system, meaning most power is held by the national government. Local governments manage daily affairs but rely on national funding and oversight.

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The Unitary Nature of Israel’s Political System

Unlike federal countries (e.g., the U.S. or Germany), where power is shared between national and regional governments, Israel has a centralized system.

Key Features of Israel’s Unitary System:

• No Federated States or Regions: Israel does not have independent regional governments.
• Local Authorities Depend on National Government: The Ministry of the Interior controls budgets, policies, and oversight.
• Limited Local Autonomy: Local governments handle municipal affairs, but major decisions require national approval.

However, Israel allows some regional differences, especially for Jewish, Arab, and Druze communities.

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Powers and Functions of Local Governments

Israel has three types of local government authorities:

1. Municipalities (Cities)

• Manage large urban areas (e.g., Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, Haifa, Be’er Sheva).
• Duties: Urban planning, education, local transport, sanitation, public safety.

2. Local Councils (Towns and Smaller Cities)

• Oversee smaller towns that are not large enough to be full municipalities.
• Duties: Road maintenance, local businesses, education services.

3. Regional Councils (Rural Areas)

• Manage multiple rural communities (e.g., kibbutzim and moshavim).
• Duties: Agriculture, regional planning, environmental care.

Key Functions of Local Governments:

• Public Services: Waste collection, education, healthcare, transport.
• Zoning and Urban Planning: Approving construction projects and land use.
• Local Taxation: Arnona (property tax) is the main revenue source.
• Community Welfare: Social programs for youth, elderly, and low-income groups.

Despite these responsibilities, local governments depend on national funding, limiting their independence.

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The Relationship Between National and Local Governments

1. Ministry of the Interior Oversight
   • Sets rules for local governance and approves budgets.
   • Can dissolve local councils for mismanagement.
2. Financial Dependence on National Government
   • Local governments need state funding for essential services.
   • Wealthier cities (e.g., Tel Aviv) generate more tax revenue, while poorer areas rely on government aid.
3. Limited Local Autonomy in Major Policies
   • Education, law enforcement, and transportation are controlled by national ministries.
   • Local governments can suggest policies, but final decisions are made nationally.
4. Political Influence in Local Elections
   • Local elections happen every five years.
   • National political parties often influence mayoral races.
   • Arab and ultra-Orthodox communities vote in strong blocs, affecting local and national politics.

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Challenges in Local Governance

1. Economic Disparities Between Municipalities

• Wealthy cities (Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan, Herzliya) provide better services due to higher tax revenue.
• Poorer areas (Negev Bedouin towns, Arab villages, Haredi cities like Bnei Brak) struggle with budget shortages.
• Equalization grants aim to reduce gaps, but disparities remain.

2. Political Corruption and Mismanagement

• Some municipalities face corruption issues (e.g., bribery, fraud, misallocation of funds).
• Example: Former Jerusalem Mayor Ehud Olmert faced corruption charges affecting his political career.

3. Discrimination Against Arab and Ultra-Orthodox Communities

• Arab municipalities receive less funding, leading to weaker services.
• Ultra-Orthodox cities (e.g., Bnei Brak) suffer from high poverty and overcrowding, affecting public services.

4. Conflict Between Local and National Policies

• Mayors often disagree with national leaders over policies like city planning and religious laws.
• Example: Tel Aviv supports public transport on Shabbat, but religious parties oppose it.

5. Security Issues in Mixed Cities

• Cities with Jewish and Arab populations (e.g., Lod, Haifa, Acre) face ethnic tensions.
• Violent riots in 2021 (during the Israel-Gaza conflict) exposed weak local crisis management.

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Conclusion

Israel’s unitary system gives strong control to the national government, but local governments remain essential for daily services. However, economic inequality, corruption, and ethnic tensions create governance challenges. Discussions about decentralization and fair resource distribution will shape the future of local governance in Israel.

Current Issues in Israel

Israel faces political, social, and security challenges that impact governance. Key debates include religion in politics, Jewish vs. democratic values, security threats, and foreign relations.

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Religion’s Role in Politics

Religion influences laws, civil rights, and political alliances, causing frequent political disagreements.

A. Religious Parties in Government

• Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) and religious-nationalist parties (e.g., Shas, United Torah Judaism, Religious Zionist Party) hold strong political influence.
• They demand policies like:
  • Military service exemptions for Haredi men.
  • More funding for religious schools.
  • Banning public transport on Shabbat.

B. Secular vs. Religious Laws

• Marriage and Divorce:
  • Controlled by religious courts, with no civil marriage in Israel.
  • Many Israelis marry abroad to bypass this law.
• Public Life and Shabbat Laws:
  • Many businesses must close on Shabbat.
  • Tel Aviv and other secular areas push for looser restrictions.
• LGBTQ+ Rights vs. Religious Views:
  • Religious parties oppose LGBTQ+ rights, including same-sex adoption and surrogacy.
  • Courts have ruled in favor of LGBTQ+ rights, causing tensions.

C. Jewish Identity in National Policy

• Some nationalist-religious parties push for expanding Jewish settlements in the West Bank.
• The Nation-State Law (2018) declares Israel the Jewish nation-state, prioritizing Jewish identity over democratic equality, sparking Arab and secular opposition.

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Jewish vs. Democratic Values

Balancing Israel’s Jewish identity and democratic principles is a major issue.

A. Jewish Identity of the State

• Law of Return (1950) grants automatic citizenship to Jews worldwide.
• Nation-State Law (2018):
  • Declares Hebrew as the sole official language, downgrading Arabic’s status.
  • Emphasizes Jewish settlement expansion.

B. Democratic Principles

• Israel has elections, free speech, and judicial independence.
• The Supreme Court protects civil rights and checks religious laws.
• Arab citizens (20% of the population) can vote but face economic and political discrimination.

C. Conflicts Between Jewish and Democratic Values

• Nation-State Law criticized for prioritizing Jewish identity over equality.
• Judicial reforms (2023–2024) proposed by Netanyahu’s government could limit Supreme Court power, raising democracy concerns.
• Right-wing groups push for a Jewish-first approach, while liberal voices demand equal rights for all citizens.

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Security Challenges

A. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict

• The West Bank and Gaza are ongoing security concerns.
• Hamas in Gaza launches rocket attacks, leading to Israeli military responses.
• Jewish settlements in the West Bank escalate tensions and draw international criticism.
• The two-state solution is increasingly unlikely due to political deadlock.

B. Terrorism and Internal Security

• Israel faces terrorist attacks from Palestinian militants.
• The security barrier (West Bank wall) reduces attacks but is criticized as discriminatory.
• Arab-Jewish riots in Lod, Haifa, and Acre (2021) highlight internal tensions.

C. Iran and Regional Threats

• Iran is Israel’s top security concern due to its nuclear program and support for Hezbollah.
• Israel has conducted airstrikes in Syria to counter Iranian influence.

D. Military and National Service

• Mandatory military service applies to Jewish citizens, but Haredi and Arab communities are largely exempt.
• The Haredi exemption is a growing political and social issue.

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Israel’s Foreign Relations

A. Normalization with Arab States (Abraham Accords, 2020)

• Israel established ties with UAE, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan.
• These agreements strengthened economic and security ties.

B. Ongoing Tensions with Arab Rivals

• Saudi Arabia and Israel cooperate on security, but full diplomatic ties remain uncertain.
• Hezbollah in Lebanon, backed by Iran, remains a major threat.

C. Relations with the United States

• The U.S. is Israel’s closest ally, providing military aid and diplomatic support.
• Key U.S.-Israel tensions include:
  • Israeli settlement expansion.
  • U.S.-Iran nuclear negotiations.
  • Concerns over Netanyahu’s judicial reforms.

D. European Relations and the Palestinian Conflict

• The EU criticizes Israeli settlements but maintains strong trade ties.
• Some European nations recognize Palestine, causing diplomatic tensions.

E. Global Criticism and the BDS Movement

• Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions (BDS) movement opposes Israeli policies toward Palestinians.
• Israel considers BDS antisemitic and has laws to counter its influence.

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Conclusion

Israel’s biggest challenges include balancing Jewish and democratic values, security threats, and international relations. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, religious tensions, and judicial reforms will shape the country’s future. Meanwhile, Israel’s regional diplomacy and global partnerships remain critical to its security and economy.