In this post, notes of “Unit 2: Early Nationalism– Emergence of Indian National Congress (INC), ‘Moderates’ and ‘Extremists’ Nationalist, Swadeshi and early Revolutionary Movements” from “DSC- 2: History of India – VIII: c. 1857 – 1950” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
1. Formation of the Indian National Congress (INC)
1.1 Background and Context
1.1.1 Changes After the 1857 Revolt
- Effects of the 1857 Revolt on British Rule: The 1857 revolt, known as the First War of Indian Independence, greatly affected British rule in India. The British responded harshly, taking direct control of India from the East India Company. They aimed to stop any future revolts by increasing their military presence and centralizing power, often using strict measures to suppress any signs of rebellion.
- Divide and Rule Policy: After the revolt, the British used a “divide and rule” approach to keep Indians from uniting. They created divisions based on religion, caste, and region, often favoring one group over another to weaken opposition. This strategy led to increased tensions, especially between Hindus and Muslims, and set the stage for future political conflicts.
1.1.2 Social and Economic Changes
- Growth of Western Education: The British introduced Western education in India, leading to the rise of a new educated middle class. Schools and universities like the University of Calcutta (established in 1857) spread new ideas about freedom, democracy, and nationalism. Many educated Indians began to question their political and social conditions, forming the backbone of the Indian nationalist movement.
- Emergence of the Indian Middle Class: With better education, a middle class developed in cities, including professionals and business people influenced by Western ideals. This group began to demand political rights and more representation, pushing for the creation of political organizations to express these needs.
1.1.3 Early Political Groups
- Establishment of the Indian Association (1876): The Indian Association, started by Surendranath Banerjee in Calcutta in 1876, was one of the first groups advocating for Indian rights. Initially focused on education and social reforms, it eventually took on political issues, demanding Indian involvement in governance and addressing colonial grievances.
- Bombay Presidency Association and Madras Mahajan Sabha: Other important early groups included the Bombay Presidency Association (founded in 1885) and the Madras Mahajan Sabha (established in 1884). Like the Indian Association, they aimed to advocate for Indian rights and reform colonial policies, helping to shape the political discussion that led to the founding of the Indian National Congress.
These elements together created a strong desire for political change, leading to the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885, which became a key player in the fight for Indian independence.
1.2 Formation of the Indian National Congress
1.2.1 Role of A.O. Hume
- Hume’s Efforts: Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British official, was key in starting the Indian National Congress (INC). After leaving his job, Hume became more understanding of Indian political needs and saw the INC as a way for moderates to speak with the British government peacefully. He wanted to prevent more unrest like the 1857 revolt and hoped to help British officials and Indian leaders work together.
- Bringing Leaders Together: Hume aimed to unite different Indian leaders to work together peacefully instead of using violence. He believed the Indian middle class wanted political change and needed an organized group to express their needs. Hume wanted to ease tensions and create a way for Indian leaders to share their concerns with the British government in an orderly fashion.
1.2.2 The First Session (1885)
- First Meeting in Bombay: The first meeting of the Indian National Congress happened from December 28 to 31, 1885, in Bombay (now Mumbai). This marked the official start of the INC and was an important step in Indian politics. Although it was small at first, it set the groundwork for the INC to grow into a major political group.
- Key Figures: The first session was led by Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee, a well-known Bengali lawyer. Dadabhai Naoroji, known as the “Grand Old Man of India,” was also a key member and later became the first Indian in the British Parliament. About 72 delegates attended, including important leaders like Surendranath Banerjee and Pherozeshah Mehta, all wanting political and administrative changes.
1.2.3 Aims and Objectives
- Building Unity Among Nationalists: A main goal of the INC was to promote unity among Indian nationalists from different backgrounds. The INC wanted to bring together various communities to work together for national reform against British rule. It aimed to create a space for discussion and cooperation among Indian leaders.
- Fostering National Pride: The INC also aimed to develop a sense of nationalism among Indians. By addressing shared issues like economic exploitation and lack of political rights, it sought to build a collective Indian identity. This spirit of nationalism was to grow through discussions on national interests, pushing for more Indian involvement in governance.
- Creating a Space for Dialogue: The INC wanted to provide a peaceful way for Indians to express their political and social concerns to the British government. It focused on using petitions and discussions to seek reforms instead of violent actions. The Congress was a place to talk about issues like the Indian economy, education, and the welfare of the Indian people, aiming to solve problems through formal requests to the British government.
The formation of the Indian National Congress was an important event in India’s political history. The INC started with moderate goals but laid the groundwork for more intense movements and played a key role in the fight for India’s independence.
1.3 Early Activities and Methods
1.3.1 Constitutional Agitation
- Petitions to British Authorities: In its beginning years, the Indian National Congress (INC) used peaceful methods to ask for changes. They did not want to start a rebellion but instead focused on lawful ways to demand reform. One main method was sending petitions to the British government to ask for changes in rules and to include Indians in governance. These petitions pointed out problems like the lack of Indian representation in government roles and unfair treatment of Indians by the British.
- Use of Memorandums and Resolutions: The INC also wrote memorandums and resolutions to show their demands formally. These documents were given to British officials to highlight important political and economic issues in India. Resolutions passed during Congress meetings called for specific changes, such as better education, more Indian officials in government, and more civil rights for Indians. The INC mainly tried to work with the British peacefully and legally during this time.
1.3.2 Demands for Reforms
- Indian Representation in Legislative Councils: One of the first big demands of the INC was to have Indians in the British-appointed legislative councils. These councils mostly had British officials and did not include Indians, even though Indian people were the ones affected by the decisions made there. The INC wanted more Indian voices in these councils to ensure that the laws made were relevant to Indian society.
- Civil Service Examinations in India: Another important demand was to change the Indian Civil Services (ICS), which was key in governing India. The ICS exams were held in Britain, making it hard for Indians to compete since many could not afford to travel there. The INC asked for these exams to be held in India so that educated Indians could join the civil services and help run their own country.
1.3.3 Emphasis on Unity
- Overcoming Regional and Cultural Differences: The early leaders of the INC understood that for the organization to be effective, it needed to bring together people from different regions, languages, and cultures in India. British rule had created divisions among groups. The INC worked to promote unity among Indians, calling for everyone to come together despite the country’s diversity. This unity was seen as important for achieving reforms and resisting British rule.
- Inclusion of Diverse Social Groups: Another important part of the INC’s early work was to include many different groups from Indian society. While it initially gained support mainly from educated middle-class people, it later aimed to include rural workers, artisans, and women. INC leaders recognized that India’s fight for self-governance needed everyone’s participation, including those who were less privileged. The INC wanted to create a space where the needs of all Indians could be heard, no matter their social or economic background.
The early efforts of the INC focused on peaceful methods to ask for political and administrative changes. They aimed to achieve their goals through discussions with the British government and sought to unite a diverse population for self-governance. This focus on unity and inclusion helped the INC grow into a wide-reaching national movement.
1.4 British Attitude Towards the INC
1.4.1 Initial Perceptions
- Seeing INC as a “Safety Valve”: At first, the British government did not pay much attention to the Indian National Congress (INC) and thought of it as a way to let out some of the anger in India. They believed that the INC would help express Indian concerns peacefully, which would stop bigger protests. The early leaders of the INC focused on asking for changes and talking with the British instead of fighting. The British thought that by letting the INC speak, they could keep the educated middle class calm and reduce the chance of major unrest.
- Lord Dufferin’s Meetings with Leaders: Lord Dufferin, who was the British Viceroy of India from 1884 to 1888, helped shape how the British viewed the INC. Although he was unsure about the Congress’s power, he thought that talking to its leaders could help deal with the growing Indian demands. Dufferin mostly interacted with Congress leaders in a polite way and saw the INC as a group that could support British interests, as long as it stayed moderate. He tried to make the Congress seem less important by building connections with a few key leaders while keeping British authority strong.
1.4.2 Growing Suspicion
- Worry About Unified Indian Opinion: As the INC became more popular and started to connect people from different parts of India, the British grew more concerned about its ability to unite Indians for a common cause. Although early Congress leaders were moderate and focused on reforms, the increasing support for the INC worried the British. They feared that a united Indian political group could pressure the British government, especially as the INC began to include more voices from various backgrounds. The British were anxious that this unity might lead to stronger demands against British rule.
- Actions to Control Nationalist Activities: In response to the INC’s growing power, the British government took steps to limit nationalist activities. Even though they still saw the INC as moderate, they worried that its calls for change could lead to more extreme movements. To control the INC’s influence, the British imposed restrictions on public meetings, monitored Congress leaders, and used the media to undermine the INC. They also tried to create divisions among Indian leaders by highlighting regional or communal differences to weaken their unity.
In the beginning, the British did not recognize the power of the INC, thinking it was a safe way for Indians to express their concerns. But as the INC gained influence and connected a wide range of Indians, the British grew suspicious, fearing that a united nationalist movement could threaten their rule. This led to increased monitoring and efforts to suppress nationalist activities, even while still talking to INC leaders diplomatically.
2. ‘Moderates’ and ‘Extremists’ Nationalists
2.1 Understanding ‘Moderates’ and ‘Extremists’
2.1.1 Differences in Ideas
- Ways to Self-Governance: The Indian National Congress (INC) had two main groups: the Moderates and the Extremists, who had different ideas on how to get self-governance for India.
- Moderates: The Moderates wanted to achieve self-governance slowly and through peaceful means. They believed in working within the current British system, asking for changes and rights through discussions and petitions. They thought that by talking and getting support from the British public, the British government would eventually allow India more freedom. Key leaders included Dadabhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee.
- Extremists: The Extremists were more aggressive in their approach. They thought the Moderates were too slow and wanted quicker and bigger changes. They criticized the British for exploiting India and believed that independence could only come through strong protests and direct action. Important leaders were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Lala Lajpat Rai.
- Views on British Rule: Moderates believed that working with the British was possible and that changing their policies from within was the best way to get self-rule. They hoped that by being loyal and cooperative, the British would recognize India’s efforts and allow more self-governance.
In contrast, the Extremists saw British rule as unfair and harmful. They were less willing to collaborate and believed that true independence would come from mass protests and rejecting British control.
2.1.2 Changes in the INC
- Early Cooperation: At first, both the Moderates and Extremists worked together in the INC towards the shared goal of self-governance, using petitions and discussions to ask for reforms. They focused on including Indians in government councils and improving civil services.
- Growing Divisions: Over time, their different approaches led to disagreements within the INC. The Moderates wanted to continue with their peaceful methods, while the Extremists were frustrated with the slow changes and the British government’s refusal to listen. This tension peaked in 1907 during the INC meeting in Surat, where the two groups split. The Moderates, led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Pherozeshah Mehta, and the Extremists, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, could not find common ground.
This split was a key moment in the INC’s history. Although it weakened the organization at first, it also opened the door for new ideas in the independence movement. The Extremists began to advocate for more direct actions, like boycotts and promoting self-reliance (Swadeshi), while the Moderates remained focused on discussions and legal methods. This divide would shape the future of India’s struggle for freedom.
In short, the difference between the Moderates and Extremists in the INC was not just about strategy but also about their views on British rule and how to achieve self-governance. Initially, both groups worked together, but as time went on, their differences grew, leading to a split that changed India’s political scene.
2.2 The Moderates
2.2.1 Key Leaders
- Dadabhai Naoroji: The Grand Old Man of India
Dadabhai Naoroji was a key leader in the Indian National Congress and is known as the “Grand Old Man of India.” He was important in the early nationalist movement and criticized British rule for taking India’s wealth. He created the “Drain Theory,” showing how British policies harmed India’s economy. In 1892, he became the first Indian elected to the British Parliament, where he spoke about India’s issues. He aimed to get more Indian representation in British institutions. - Gopal Krishna Gokhale: The Mentor of Gandhi
Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a respected leader and mentor to Mahatma Gandhi. He believed in making gradual changes and working with the British government. He focused on education, social improvements, and better opportunities for Indians. Gokhale helped start the Servants of India Society, which aimed to educate Indians and enhance their living conditions. - Pherozeshah Mehta and Surendranath Banerjee
Pherozeshah Mehta and Surendranath Banerjee were also important leaders. Mehta was a lawyer who worked for reforms in Indian civil services and rights for Indians in government. Banerjee was a significant figure in the early Indian National Congress, advocating for constitutional methods and greater political participation for Indians. Both helped develop the INC and aimed for dialogue with the British government.
2.2.2 Beliefs and Strategies
- Faith in British Justice and Fair Play
The Moderates believed that the British government would be fair if they understood Indian problems. They thought that by using peaceful methods, like petitions and discussions, they could persuade the British to make reforms and allow more Indian involvement in governance. - Advocacy for Constitutional Reforms
The Moderates sought constitutional reforms, such as more Indian representation in government, civil service improvements, better education, and expanded political rights. They believed that loyalty and cooperation with the British would help India gain self-governance. They worked to inform both the British and Indians about the benefits of gradual reform. - Use of Diplomacy and Legal Methods
The Moderates used diplomacy, petitions, and legal approaches to achieve their goals. They focused on peaceful actions, like petitions to the British government and Congress resolutions, to push for reforms. They believed that dialogue and legal means could help establish Indian self-governance without violence.
2.2.3 Contributions and Criticisms
- Economic Critique of Colonialism (Drain Theory)
One major contribution from the Moderates, especially Naoroji, was the “Drain Theory.” He argued that the British were taking India’s wealth, which harmed the economy and caused poverty. This theory supported the idea of Indian self-rule and raised awareness about the negative effects of British colonialism. - Limited Mass Mobilization
A key criticism of the Moderates was their failure to engage the masses in their reform efforts. They mainly focused on educated and urban Indians, neglecting the rural population. This lack of broader support made their movement less effective, especially as more radical groups began to seek stronger action for independence. - Criticized for Being Elitist and Slow
The Moderates were often seen as elitist since their strategies mostly suited educated and upper-middle-class Indians. Their slow approach to reform was viewed as ineffective in dealing with urgent political and economic issues in India. This led to frustrations that contributed to the rise of Extremists, who wanted quicker and more aggressive changes.
In summary, the Moderates were important in the early Indian nationalist movement, advocating for constitutional reforms and critiquing colonialism while working within the British system for self-governance. However, their gradual methods, limited mass appeal, and perceived elitism made it hard for them to create widespread political change, leading to the emergence of more radical groups within the INC.
2.3 The Extremists
2.3.1 Important Leaders
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Lokmanya and Radical Nationalist
Bal Gangadhar Tilak is a famous and influential leader in the Extremist group of Indian nationalism. Known as “Lokmanya” (beloved by the people), Tilak pushed for strong actions to gain self-rule for India. He criticized British rule and believed that India could only achieve independence through direct action and strong nationalism. His slogan “Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it” inspired many nationalists. Tilak also helped revive Hindu festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi to promote national pride and unity. He contributed not just in politics but also in social and cultural reforms, focusing on education. - Lala Lajpat Rai: The Lion of Punjab
Lala Lajpat Rai was a key nationalist and a well-known leader in the Extremist group. Called the “Lion of Punjab,” he fought hard for Indian independence and worked for the people’s welfare. He opposed British rule and led protests, including the non-cooperation movement in Punjab. Rai also focused on education and social reform, helping lower castes and advocating for women’s rights. His strong resistance to British rule led to him being severely beaten during a protest in 1928, which contributed to his death. - Bipin Chandra Pal: The Father of Revolutionary Thought
Bipin Chandra Pal was an important leader in the Extremist movement and is known as the “Father of Revolutionary Thought” in India. He believed that the British would not give India freedom peacefully and called for more direct and aggressive actions. Pal promoted national self-reliance and encouraged young people to oppose British rule. He was key in sharing revolutionary ideas and supported the Swadeshi movement, inspiring many nationalists to fight against colonial rule.
2.3.2 Basic Beliefs
- Strong Nationalism and Self-Reliance
The Extremists believed in strong nationalism, wanting India to be completely independent from British rule. Unlike the Moderates, who wanted gradual changes and cooperation with the British, the Extremists thought India could not be free without taking control of its future. They stressed self-reliance and urged Indians to depend on their own resources rather than British support, promoting local industries and rejecting foreign goods. - Demand for Swaraj (Self-Rule)
A main goal of the Extremists was Swaraj or self-rule. They believed India should be governed by Indians and that British control was unfair. Swaraj meant not just having more say in the government, but complete independence from British rule. The Extremists felt that India had the right to govern itself. - Focus on Cultural Revival
The Extremists aimed to revive India’s culture, traditions, and heritage. They believed British rule damaged Indian values and wanted to restore ancient traditions by promoting Indian languages, arts, and religious practices. This cultural revival was seen as important for national unity and pride in India’s history.
2.3.3 Methods and Actions
- Swadeshi and Boycott Movements
The Extremists were active in the Swadeshi (self-reliance) and boycott movements in the early 1900s. The Swadeshi movement was a reaction to British policies hurting Indian industries. The Extremists encouraged people to stop using British goods and support local products. This weakened the British economy and helped Indian industries grow. Boycotting foreign goods became a symbol of Indian resistance and promoted national pride. - Using Local Languages to Reach Many People
The Extremists used local languages to connect with the masses. They realized that to reach more people, they needed to avoid the English language and speak in languages like Marathi, Bengali, and Hindi. This helped spread nationalist ideas and build a strong link with ordinary people, who had been left out of discussions led by English-educated elites. - Gatherings and Festivals
The Extremists effectively used festivals and public events to spread their message and gather support. For example, Bal Gangadhar Tilak revived the Ganesh Chaturthi festival to unite Hindus and promote nationalism. These events included speeches and cultural activities aimed at raising awareness of nationalism and also served as opportunities for organizing protests and rallies.
2.3.4 Publications and Propaganda
- Newspapers: Kesari (Marathi) and Maratha (English)
The Extremists understood the importance of newspapers in spreading their ideas. Publications like Kesari (in Marathi) and Maratha (in English) were essential for rallying against British rule. Run by leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, these newspapers shared revolutionary ideas and criticisms of British policies, helping to shape public opinion in favor of independence. - Focus on National Education
The Extremists highlighted national education to awaken the Indian people. They supported creating schools that taught Indian culture, history, and values. This education aimed to instill pride in India’s heritage and foster nationalism. The Extremists believed education was vital for preparing future generations to fight for independence.
In summary, the Extremists played a key role in the Indian nationalist movement, pushing for direct action, self-rule, and the revival of Indian culture. Led by figures like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Bipin Chandra Pal, they used mass mobilization, cultural revival, and publications to spread their message and challenge British rule. Their confrontational methods laid the groundwork for the more radical phases of the independence struggle.
2.4 The Surat Split of 1907
- 2.4.1 Reasons for the Split
- Different Approaches to Fighting: The main reason for the Surat Split was the different ways of fighting for freedom between the Moderates and the Extremists. The Moderates wanted to use peaceful methods like petitions and talking with the British, while the Extremists wanted to take strong actions like mass protests against British rule.
- Conflict at the Surat Meeting of the INC: The conflict between the two groups became serious at the Surat Meeting in 1907. The Moderates and Extremists could not work out their differences, which led to a fight that split the Indian National Congress (INC) into two groups.
- 2.4.2 Events of the Split
- Chaos at the Meeting: The Surat Meeting of 1907 was very chaotic because the Extremists faced strong opposition from the Moderates. The meeting turned into chaos with loud arguments and personal attacks. This was a key moment in the INC’s history, showing that the Extremists and Moderates could not settle their issues.
- Removal of Extremist Leaders: After the chaos, Extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak were removed from the INC, and the Moderates took control of the group. This created a clear split in the movement, with the Moderates leading the INC for the next few years.
- 2.4.3 Effects
- Temporary Weakening of the National Movement: The Surat Split temporarily made the national movement weaker. With the Extremists gone, the INC became more moderate and less active, leading to a time of relative inaction in the fight for Indian independence. The split created a divide that slowed down the independence movement for several years.
- British Taking Advantage of Division: The British used this division within the INC to weaken the Indian nationalist movement. They played the Moderates and Extremists against each other and made it seem like the INC was divided and unable to unite, which hurt the national struggle.
- Lessons for Future Unity: The Surat Split taught a lesson for the future of the Indian freedom struggle. It showed the risks of being divided and the need for unity among Indian nationalists. It also showed that political differences should be managed carefully, as fighting among themselves could be used by colonial rulers to their advantage.
The Surat Split of 1907 was an important moment in India’s fight for independence, causing a temporary setback and showing the difficulties of staying united in the nationalist movement.
2.5 Impact on the Nationalist Movement
2.5.1 Short-Term Consequences
- British Repression
The rise of the Extremist group in the Indian National Congress and the tensions with the Moderates led to more resistance against British rule. In response, the British took harsh actions to control growing nationalist feelings. They banned public gatherings, protests, and restricted newspapers. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak were arrested, and newspapers such as Kesari and Maratha were censored or shut down. The British increased their watch over revolutionary activities. These actions aimed to stop the unrest and keep control, but many Indians saw this as proof that the British were not willing to make real changes or respect Indian needs. - Decrease in Nationalist Activities
The split between the Moderates and Extremists, especially the violent events during the 1907 Surat split, weakened the Indian National Congress and slowed down nationalist efforts. The fighting between the two groups and the British repression caused a short pause in organized political activities. Many leaders were jailed or sidelined, and the focus turned to internal disagreements instead of uniting against British rule. After the split, there was a temporary drop in nationalist activity, though the dissatisfaction with British rule remained.
2.5.2 Long-Term Significance
- Foundation for Mass Movements
Even with the short-term decline in nationalist efforts, the actions and ideas of both the Moderates and Extremists laid the groundwork for future mass movements in India’s fight for independence. The growing anger toward British rule and the demand for self-governance encouraged more people to join the national movement. The Extremists’ focus on mass gatherings, protests, and supporting local goods helped the public see the national movement as important to their lives. The Swadeshi movement, in particular, encouraged more everyday people to get involved in the struggle for freedom. - Influence on Gandhi’s Strategies
The Extremists’ emphasis on mass participation, direct actions, and cultural revival significantly influenced Mahatma Gandhi. Initially working with the Moderates, Gandhi later adopted some of the Extremists’ methods, especially their focus on non-cooperation, self-reliance, and boycotts. His strategies during the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) and the Salt March (1930) were inspired by the earlier movements led by the Extremists. Gandhi used peaceful but mass protests to challenge British rule, building on the Extremist ideas while highlighting nonviolence. - Need for Inclusive Approaches
A key lesson from the divide between the Moderates and Extremists was the importance of an inclusive approach to the nationalist movement. The split showed the need to bring together different social and regional groups. As the struggle for independence continued, leaders like Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose understood that to achieve true independence, the movement needed to unite various social classes, castes, religious groups, and regions. This shift towards an inclusive nationalism was essential for gaining broader support and ensuring the freedom struggle represented the hopes of all Indians.
In summary, while the immediate effects of the divide between the Extremists and Moderates led to British repression and a temporary slowdown in organized nationalist efforts, the long-term importance of this time was significant. It set the stage for mass movements, influenced leaders like Gandhi, and highlighted the need for inclusive strategies in India’s fight for independence. The tensions of this period ultimately shaped the future of the Indian freedom movement.
3. Swadeshi and Early Revolutionary Movements
3.1 The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1911)
- 3.1.1 Reason: Partition of Bengal (1905)
The Swadeshi Movement started because the British decided to split Bengal in 1905. They said this was for better management, claiming Bengal was too big to handle. However, their real reason was to weaken the Indian nationalist movement by dividing people based on religion. They created East Bengal for Muslims and West Bengal for Hindus. This “Divide and Rule” tactic aimed to create conflicts between the two groups, making it harder for them to unite against British rule.
Many people in India, especially in Bengal, were very angry about this split, seeing it as an attack on their unity. The movement, especially the Extremists in the Indian National Congress, saw this as a chance to gather people to oppose British rule. The Swadeshi Movement became a strong movement, calling for a boycott of British goods and support for local industries as a way to protest British control.
- 3.1.2 Goals of the Swadeshi Movement
- Economic Self-Sufficiency
The main goal of the Swadeshi Movement was to make India economically self-sufficient. British rules harmed local industries by encouraging the import of British goods. The Swadeshi Movement wanted to change this by promoting the use of Indian products and lessening dependence on foreign goods. By supporting local industries like textiles and handicrafts, they aimed to weaken British control over India’s economy. Boycotting foreign goods was seen as a way to empower Indians and create a stronger local economy.
- Support for Local Industries
Another important goal was to promote local industries, especially textiles. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai stressed the need for industries that would meet Indian people’s needs and create jobs. The movement encouraged starting handloom industries and cotton mills. This was seen as a way to challenge British economic control, which had kept India dependent on British imports. By boosting local industries, the Swadeshi Movement aimed to make India more independent economically.
- Political Protest Against British Policies
The Swadeshi Movement was also a political protest against British policies, especially the partition of Bengal. It pushed for self-governance, which meant that Indians should make their own decisions instead of being ruled by foreigners. The movement called for rejecting British rule and asserting Indian rights. Besides boycotting foreign goods, it included public meetings, protests, and petitions. This marked a shift toward more direct resistance and showed growing anger toward British policies. The protest was not just about the partition but also against the overall British control that oppressed India.
- Economic Self-Sufficiency
The Swadeshi Movement was an important early effort in India’s fight for independence. It brought many people together and offered a clear plan to oppose British rule. While it started with the issue of Bengal’s partition, its wider aims of economic independence and political protest set the stage for future movements. It also began a stronger sense of nationalism that would grow in the following years.
3.2 Strategies and Implementation
3.2.1 Boycott of British Goods
- Public Burnings of Foreign Cloth
During the Swadeshi Movement, many people protested against British goods by boycotting them, especially British cloth. In cities like Kolkata, people gathered to burn British textiles in public bonfires as a way to show their resistance to British control over the economy. This act not only rejected British imports but also celebrated India’s own textile industry. Nationalist leaders organized these events, which were emotional and involved people from different backgrounds. The goal was to put economic pressure on British manufacturers and promote local craftsmanship, particularly in handloom, which the British had harmed with their policies. - Encouragement of Local Products
The Swadeshi Movement also encouraged people to buy local products. This included promoting Indian-made textiles and other goods like pottery, leather, and metalwork. Local markets were set up, and people were urged to support Indian products, fostering national pride and economic independence. The movement aimed to help local artisans and small industries create products to replace British imports, making self-sufficiency a main goal. Reviving local crafts and traditional industries was seen as a way to combat the negative effects of British economic policies.
3.2.2 National Education Movement
- Establishment of National Schools and Colleges
A key part of the Swadeshi Movement was the focus on national education to empower people and promote nationalism. Nationalist leaders rejected the British education system and established schools and colleges that highlighted Indian culture, history, and values. Leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal advocated for education that would nurture a sense of nationalism. The aim was to create institutions where students could learn about their own heritage instead of a British-centered curriculum. This led to the creation of many educational institutions, including the National Council of Education, which set the stage for future educational reforms in India. - Emphasis on Indian History and Culture
The National Education Movement stressed the importance of teaching Indian history and culture, aiming to revive pride in India’s past and traditions. It opposed the colonial view that portrayed Indian culture as inferior. Subjects like ancient Indian history, literature, and art were highlighted, encouraging students to take pride in their heritage. Education was viewed not just as a way to gain knowledge but also as a means of national awakening and resistance to colonial rule. Rabindranath Tagore also promoted cultural revival through literature and music, reinforcing the connection to India’s roots.
3.2.3 Mass Mobilization
- Use of Songs and Literature (Rabindranath Tagore’s “Amar Shonar Bangla”)
The Swadeshi Movement recognized the importance of culture and emotion in bringing people together. Rabindranath Tagore’s song “Amar Shonar Bangla” (My Golden Bengal) became a symbol of resistance and unity. Tagore’s writings, along with other nationalist poets, inspired people by evoking pride in their nation. Songs, poems, and literature were used to spread nationalist ideas and raise awareness about the movement’s goals. These cultural expressions helped unite Indians from different regions and social backgrounds under the Swadeshi Movement. - Festivals and Melas as Platforms for Protest
Festivals and melas (fairs) became important venues for protests and spreading nationalist ideas. The Swadeshi Movement cleverly used cultural and religious events to mobilize people. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak used festivals such as Ganesh Chaturthi for political purposes, using these gatherings to promote unity. Public meetings, processions, and mass gatherings were held during these events, where speeches were made, and songs of resistance were sung. The aim was to foster a sense of national solidarity through community activities, effectively combining politics with culture. This approach was particularly effective in reaching rural populations who were familiar with festivals and melas.
3.2.4 Role of Different Social Groups
- Involvement of Students, Women, and Workers
The Swadeshi Movement was one of the first mass movements in India to include students, women, and workers actively. Students played a key role in organizing protests and rallies. Many schools became centers of nationalist activity, teaching young people about self-rule and resistance. Women, who had not been involved in politics before, joined the movement by organizing boycotts of foreign goods, protesting, and supporting local industries. They also contributed through cultural activities like singing patriotic songs and spinning khadi. Workers, especially in cities, became important supporters of the movement as they sought better working conditions and joined in the boycotts of British goods. - Expansion Beyond Bengal to Other Regions
While Bengal was the main center of the Swadeshi Movement, its impact spread to other parts of India over time. The movement’s focus on local goods, boycotts, and education resonated with people nationwide. Similar protests were organized in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Punjab, promoting local industries. The movement inspired new generations of nationalist leaders who would play key roles in the later independence struggle. The Swadeshi Movement marked the start of a nationwide resistance to British rule, breaking regional and social barriers and creating a more unified nationalist movement that would continue to grow.
In summary, the Swadeshi Movement used various strategies to mobilize people and challenge British rule. By boycotting British goods, promoting local products, establishing national education institutions, and using cultural expressions like songs and festivals, the movement encouraged widespread participation from different social groups. It set the stage for larger, more inclusive movements in India’s fight for independence. The Swadeshi Movement was not just a challenge to British economic policies but also a significant moment in the rise of Indian nationalism, showing the strength of collective action, cultural pride, and self-reliance against colonial oppression.
3.3 Early Revolutionary Activities
3.3.1 Rise of Secret Societies
- Anushilan Samiti in Bengal
The Anushilan Samiti was created in the late 1800s in Bengal. It started as a group to promote fitness but soon became a secret organization aimed at ending British rule in India using revolutionary actions. The members wanted independence and believed in fighting against British control. They helped spread revolutionary thoughts in Bengal and were involved in bombings and attacks on British officials. Unlike the Indian National Congress, which preferred peaceful methods, the Samiti focused on direct action. - Abhinav Bharat Society in Maharashtra
The Abhinav Bharat Society was founded by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1904. This group also believed that armed resistance was necessary for India’s independence. They aimed to inspire young Indians to take action and promoted a strong sense of nationalism. The society was linked to several assassination attempts on British officials and supported Hindu nationalism as part of the independence movement. They believed in a strong and self-sufficient India, free from colonial rule.
3.3.2 Motivations
- Disillusionment with Moderate Methods
Many young nationalists felt frustrated with the Indian National Congress’s slow and peaceful approach to gaining rights and representation. They believed that the British government was not listening to their demands and that non-violent methods like petitions were not enough. This led them to seek more direct and forceful ways to fight against British oppression. - Inspired by International Revolutionary Movements
Indian revolutionaries were also motivated by successful nationalist movements in other countries like Ireland, Russia, and Italy. They looked to these movements for inspiration, believing that armed resistance was the only way to gain freedom from British colonial rule.
3.3.3 Notable Revolutionaries
- Aurobindo Ghosh: From Extremism to Spiritualism
Aurobindo Ghosh was a key revolutionary leader in the early 1900s. He was involved in planning attacks against British officials and inspired many with his speeches for Indian freedom. However, after a time of intense activism, he turned away from politics to focus on spirituality, becoming a respected figure in Indian philosophy. - Bhikhaji Cama: Voice of Freedom from Abroad
Bhikhaji Cama was one of the first Indian women to join the nationalist movement. She became frustrated with the moderate approach of the Congress and moved to Europe to gain international support for India’s independence. Cama made speeches and distributed literature about India’s struggle and famously raised the Indian national flag at a conference in Paris in 1907. - V.D. Savarkar: Ideologue and Activist
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was a strong revolutionary figure who promoted Hindu nationalism. He believed in armed resistance and was involved in plotting an assassination of a British official. Savarkar was arrested and spent many years in prison. Later, he shifted away from revolutionary politics but left a lasting impact on India’s independence movement.
The early revolutionary activities of groups like the Anushilan Samiti and Abhinav Bharat marked an important change in India’s fight for independence. These groups focused on armed resistance in response to frustrations with British rule. Influenced by global movements, they sought change through direct action. Key figures like Aurobindo Ghosh, Bhikhaji Cama, and V.D. Savarkar played significant roles, and their actions greatly influenced India’s struggle for freedom.
3.4 Revolutionary Actions
3.4.1 Assassinations and Attempts
- Killing of British Officials (e.g., Curzon Wyllie)
Revolutionaries used the assassination of British officials as a strong way to resist colonial rule. They aimed to create fear among the British and show that Indians would no longer accept their control. A famous case was the killing of Sir Curzon Wyllie in 1909 by Indian nationalist Madan Lal Dhingra in London. Dhingra believed that such actions were important to free India from British rule. His actions inspired many in India, and after his trial and execution, he became a symbol of the fight for independence. - Alipore Bomb Case (1908)
The Alipore Bomb Case in 1908 was another key event in the fight against British rule. It involved a plan by revolutionaries in Bengal to kill British officials using bombs. The plan went wrong when a bomb exploded early, killing several revolutionaries. Many involved, including leaders like Aurobindo Ghosh and Bagha Jatin, were arrested. This case received a lot of attention and highlighted the rising tensions between the British and Indian revolutionaries. Although Ghosh was later found not guilty, the trial brought revolutionary actions into public view and showed that some Indians were ready to use violence for independence. It also made bombings a common tactic in later revolutionary efforts in India.
3.4.2 Propaganda and Publications
- Distribution of Pamphlets and Literature
In addition to violent actions, revolutionary groups also worked on spreading their ideas through writings. They distributed pamphlets and other printed materials that called for revolution, criticized British rule, and justified using violence. Revolutionaries like Bhikhaji Cama and Lala Lajpat Rai printed and shared this literature to inspire people in India to act. These writings not only pushed for self-rule (Swaraj) but also highlighted the exploitation of India by the British. They were often shared secretly, making them an important part of underground efforts. - Establishment of Indian Press Abroad
Another crucial part of the revolutionary movement was creating Indian press outlets in other countries. Revolutionaries knew it was important to share India’s struggles with the world to gain support. Bhikhaji Cama helped start Indian publications in Europe, like Ghadar and Indian Sociologist, which challenged British views and encouraged Indians living abroad to support the independence movement. These publications reported on British wrongdoings in India, called for freedom, and spread revolutionary ideas. The Indian press abroad played a key role in connecting the global Indian community to the fight for independence and other anti-colonial movements worldwide.
In summary, revolutionary actions during this time included assassinations and violence against British officials, as well as spreading ideas through literature and establishing press outlets abroad. Events like the assassination of Curzon Wyllie and the Alipore Bomb Case showed a more radical approach to the struggle for independence, while the distribution of revolutionary writings helped gain support both in India and among Indians living overseas. These actions, though controversial, were vital to India’s growing resistance against British rule and contributed to the larger movement for freedom.
3.5 British Control and Reactions
3.5.1 Strict Laws
- Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act
To deal with rising protests and unrest, the British government in India created strict laws to stop public opposition and revolutionary ideas. One such law, the Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act (1907), allowed British officials to stop gatherings that were seen as rebellious, especially those discussing anti-British actions. This law aimed to suppress protests and political meetings that could lead to rebellion. It limited people’s freedom to express their views and gather, making it hard for nationalists and revolutionaries to gain support. These actions were part of a larger plan by the British to control the growing nationalist movements in India. - More Monitoring and Censorship
As revolutionary activities increased, the British government stepped up monitoring across India. They kept an eye on known nationalist leaders and their actions. British agents infiltrated revolutionary groups and gathered information. Newspapers and pamphlets with anti-colonial messages were censored, and printing presses that published such material were often closed down. The goal was to stop revolutionary ideas from spreading and silence critics of British rule. The British authorities imposed bans on the press and restricted the publication of works by certain nationalist leaders to prevent a united nationalist front and to silence calls for independence through education and media.
3.5.2 Trials and Punishments
- Deportation and Harsh Sentences
To further control revolutionary actions, the British government deported and gave harsh sentences to revolutionary leaders and activists. Many nationalists were arrested on charges like rebellion and conspiracy. After trials, some leaders were sent into exile or to faraway places. For example, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, a key figure in the revolutionary movement, was given a life sentence and sent to the Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands. Deportation was used to separate these leaders from the public, reducing their influence. Many faced long prison sentences or execution for violent actions against British officials. - Cellular Jail in Andaman (Kala Pani)
The Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands, known as Kala Pani (meaning “Black Water”), became a symbol of British oppression. It was a high-security prison for political prisoners, particularly revolutionaries. The jail was notorious for its harsh conditions: prisoners were kept in solitary confinement, forced to work hard, and faced brutal treatment. They were isolated from each other and the outside world, symbolizing the British attempt to crush the Indian freedom movement. Many well-known revolutionaries, like Veer Savarkar, spent years in this prison. The terrible conditions and treatment of the prisoners sparked public outrage and fueled nationalist sentiment in India. The stories of suffering from those imprisoned there increased anger towards British rule, highlighting the oppressive nature of colonial control.
In short, the British response to rising nationalist movements in India included strict laws, physical punishment, and exile. The Prevention of Seditious Meetings Act and other laws were used to limit public gatherings and suppress dissent. Increased surveillance, press censorship, and many arrests were part of the British efforts to control the push for independence. The trials and deportations of revolutionary leaders, especially those sent to the Cellular Jail, were key parts of British repression. However, these actions also strengthened the determination of Indian nationalists and contributed to the growing resistance against British rule.
3.6 Impact on the Freedom Struggle
3.6.1 Inspiring Future Generations
- Influence on Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad
The revolutionary movements in the early 1900s, such as the Swadeshi Movement and groups like the Anushilan Samiti and Abhinav Bharat Society, greatly inspired later freedom fighters like Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad. The bravery and sacrifices of earlier revolutionaries encouraged these young leaders to fight against British rule using stronger methods.
Bhagat Singh was particularly inspired by the idea of fighting back violently and wanting self-rule. He admired the sacrifices of past revolutionaries and believed the youth could shape India’s future. Chandrashekhar Azad had similar beliefs and took part in many revolutionary activities, including the notable Mainpuri Conspiracy. Their actions, like the Lahore Conspiracy Case and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, showed their dedication to India’s independence through direct action.
The earlier movements set the stage for future freedom fighters who were willing to use more radical and sometimes violent means to achieve independence. - Ideological Foundations for Later Movements
The ideas from early revolutionary movements influenced later nationalist movements. Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai encouraged a strong sense of pride in Indian culture and the need for self-reliance. This thinking was embraced by later figures like Bhagat Singh, who argued that India could only gain freedom through forceful resistance and mass action. The creation of secret societies, armed resistance, and the focus on self-reliance played a big role in shaping later groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in the 1920s and 1930s.
3.6.2 Integration with Mainstream Nationalism
- Reconciliation with Moderate Leaders
Although early revolutionaries often disagreed with the Moderates in the Indian National Congress (INC), the harsh treatment from the British led to a stronger unity between the two groups. The brutality of British actions, like the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919), made even the Moderates realize that stronger actions were needed against British rule. Leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, and Surendranath Banerjee initially sought reforms and cooperation with the British but later understood that these methods were not enough to gain independence.
The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920), led by Mahatma Gandhi, was a key moment where moderates and extremists came together. Gandhi, who once criticized violent methods, began to unite peaceful resistance with the goals of radical groups. This partnership changed the freedom struggle by bringing together different parts of Indian society for the common goal of self-rule. The extreme methods of revolutionaries were not ignored but were included in a broader movement that engaged many people. - Recognition of the Need for Mass Support
The early revolutionary movements also helped people realize that India’s fight for independence needed support from the masses, not just a few elite leaders. Radical leaders understood that real independence required the involvement of many people. The Swadeshi Movement highlighted the importance of participation from various groups—students, workers, women, and farmers—in protests, boycotts, and promoting local goods. This wide involvement made the struggle more inclusive and showed the strength of collective action against British control.
The lessons from these early movements were crucial when Mahatma Gandhi launched campaigns like the Salt March and Quit India Movement. By including the masses, Gandhi’s efforts went beyond the limits of elite-led groups and became the main force in India’s fight for freedom.
In conclusion, the Swadeshi Movement and early revolutionary activities had a big impact on the freedom struggle in both the short and long term. They inspired future revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh and Chandrashekhar Azad, who learned from their predecessors. The radical approach of these revolutionaries also affected mainstream nationalism, with leaders like Gandhi and Nehru acknowledging the need for mass support to achieve independence. The combination of radical and moderate methods helped create a united front against British colonialism, laying the groundwork for the success of the Indian independence movement.
Looking at these chapters of history shows the passion and complexity of India’s fight for independence. Different ideas and methods worked together in a lively struggle, with each playing a special role in the bigger goal.