In this post, notes of “Unit 4: Approaches to Studying Comparative politics: political cultures” from “DSC – 5: Mathods and approaches in comparative political analysis” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
Civic Culture Sydney Verba
Introduction to Civic Culture
What is civic culture
– Civic Culture means a political culture where citizens are involved, knowledgeable, and engaged in their government. It includes how people feel and think about their political system and their roles in it.
– Important ideas in civic culture are political participation (taking part in politics), trust in institutions (confidence in government bodies), civic engagement (active involvement in community issues), and political efficacy (the belief that one can make a difference in politics).
Historical Context and Development
– Civic culture started being studied in the 1960s during major political changes and social movements. Researchers wanted to see how culture affected democracy and how citizens act.
– The study called Civic Culture, done by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba in 1963, looked at political views in five democracies: the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, and Mexico.
Sydney Verba’s Contributions
Major Works and Theories
– Sydney Verba worked with Gabriel Almond on “The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations.” This important study found three types of political cultures: parochial (limited involvement), subject (aware but not active), and participant (actively involved) and showed how they relate to democracy.
– In his later work, like “Voice and Equality,” Verba explored how being engaged in civic activities can improve democracy and representation.
Civic Culture’s Impact on Comparative Politics
– Verba’s research greatly impacted how we understand comparative politics by showing how civic culture helps democracies work. His focus on citizen involvement has influenced more studies on political behavior and democracy.
– The methods he used, like surveys and comparing different countries, set a standard for research in political culture.
Case Studies of Civic Culture
Examples from Various Countries
– United States: Has a strong civic culture, with many people voting and being active in civic groups.
– Germany: Citizens trust their institutions and often discuss politics, supporting democracy.
– Mexico: After becoming a democracy, Mexico is seeing more political activity, but there are still issues with trust in the government.
Analysis of Civic Culture in Practice
– Studies show that civic culture can differ greatly between and within countries, influenced by history, society, and economy.
– In countries with strong civic cultures, citizens are often more active in politics, leading to better government responses and more trust in political institutions.
– In places with weak civic cultures, people may feel disconnected from politics, making it harder for democracy to thrive.
Conclusion
Civic culture, as explained by Sydney Verba, is key in studying comparative politics. It highlights how citizen attitudes and actions shape political systems and democracy. Understanding civic culture helps researchers look at political involvement and the state of democracies around the world.
Subculture Dennis Kavanagh
Understanding Subculture
What is subculture
– Subculture means a smaller group within a larger culture, having its own beliefs and ways of doing things. In politics, a subculture can form around specific ideas or groups that may differ from the main political culture.
– Features of political subcultures include:
– Unique Values: Subcultures have their own beliefs that shape how they view politics. For example, people focused on the environment might care more about nature than money.
– Group Identity: People in a subculture often feel a strong connection to each other, which helps them work together.
– Political Actions: Subcultures can affect how people get involved in politics, like joining protests or organizing events based on their beliefs.
Differentiation from Mainstream Culture
– Against Main Culture: Main culture shows the common political views of society, while subcultures may challenge these views. For example, young people may want to change traditional political practices.
– Effect on Politics: Subcultures can bring new ideas and topics into political discussions, helping to represent more viewpoints in debates about policies.
– Interaction of Cultures: The relationship between subcultures and main culture can change over time. For instance, issues like LGBTQ+ rights started as a subculture concern but are now part of mainstream politics.
Conclusion
Studying subcultures in politics, as explained by Dennis Kavanagh, helps us understand the variety of voices in the political world. It shows how different perspectives can make democracy stronger.
Dennis Kavanagh’s Theories
Key Contributions and Ideas
– Culture in Politics: Kavanagh stressed that culture is important for understanding how people act and think about politics. He believed that political subcultures help form people’s political identities and choices.
– Variety of Political Views: He pointed out that each political system has many subcultures representing different social and economic interests. These subcultures can create different stories and ideas that affect the main political conversation.
– Social Movements: Kavanagh studied how social movements show the views of subcultures, pushing for certain issues and challenging the main political ideas. He noted that these movements can gain support and create change, even when facing opposition from institutions.
– Political Involvement: Kavanagh looked at how subcultures relate to political involvement, saying that people from subcultures are often more eager to participate in politics when their identities and issues are acknowledged.
Influence on Political Analysis
– Wider Political Study: Kavanagh’s focus on subcultures has encouraged political scientists to consider cultural diversity when studying politics. This has added depth to the field by including social and cultural analysis.
– Understanding Political Change: His ideas offer a way to analyze how political change happens through subcultures. This helps explain why some movements are successful while others are not.
– New Research Methods: Kavanagh’s work has led to new research methods in political studies, encouraging the use of qualitative methods to better understand political subcultures. This has improved our grasp of political situations, especially in diverse societies.
– Modern Influence: Kavanagh’s ideas still affect current studies on identity politics, social movements, and culture in governance. Researchers often refer to his work when looking at the relationship between politics and various subcultures, like ethnicity, religion, and lifestyle.
Conclusion
Dennis Kavanagh’s ideas about political subcultures have greatly influenced how we analyze politics. By recognizing the variety of beliefs in societies, his work has broadened the study of comparative politics, helping us understand how culture affects political behavior and institutions.
Applications in Comparative Politics
Case Studies and Examples
– The Civil Rights Movement in the United States:
– Overview: This movement was a response to racism and unfair treatment. It united African Americans and their supporters to fight for equal rights.
– Impact: It challenged segregation and led to important laws like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The movement helped people feel connected and motivated to engage in politics.
– Green Politics and Environmental Movements:
– Overview: Environmental groups focus on protecting nature and fighting climate change. They often push for better environmental policies over traditional economic goals.
– Impact: In Germany, the Green Party shows how this movement has affected mainstream politics. Its success in elections has made environmental issues more important in political discussions.
– LGBTQ+ Rights Movement:
– Overview: This movement fights for equal rights for people of all sexual orientations and gender identities.
– Impact: It has led to changes in laws about marriage and job discrimination in many places. For example, the legalization of same-sex marriage in the U.S. shows how this movement has changed society and politics.
Subcultural Analysis in Different Political Systems
– Multicultural Societies: In countries like Canada and Australia, different groups, such as indigenous peoples and immigrants, greatly affect political discussions and decisions.
– Analysis: It is important to understand these groups to see how they fight for their rights and representation. In Canada, recognizing indigenous rights shows how these groups impact national policies.
– Authoritarian Regimes: In some countries with strict governments, groups can form to oppose the ruling powers, like pro-democracy movements in Belarus and Hong Kong.
– Analysis: Studying these groups helps explain how they gain support and resist oppression, often using cultural symbols that resonate with people.
– Political Polarization: In divided political environments, like the United States, different groups, such as populists and progressives, show clear ideological differences.
– Analysis: Understanding these groups helps explain political divides, voting behavior, and the difficulties of governing in a split society.
Conclusion
Dennis Kavanagh’s ideas about subculture in comparative politics help us understand how cultural diversity affects political behavior. Through various examples, we see that subcultures are important in shaping politics, influencing laws, and driving social change. Recognizing and studying these subcultures helps scholars understand the complex political processes in today’s societies.
Hegemony (Antonio Gramsci)
Concept of Hegemony
What is Hegemony
– Hegemony means one group has power over others, not just by using force, but by creating ideas that make other groups agree with them. It includes both forceful power (like laws and military) and persuasive power (like culture and ideas).
– The term comes from Marxist theory, which looks at how ruling classes keep their power. While traditional Marxism focuses on economic factors, Gramsci added the importance of culture and ideas.
– Hegemony is different from domination, which relies only on force. Hegemony works by getting people to agree.
Gramsci’s Interpretation of Hegemony
– Cultural Hegemony: Gramsci said that the ruling class keeps power by influencing culture and ideas. They use schools, media, and religion to spread their views, making them seem normal.
– Role of Intellectuals: Gramsci highlighted how intellectuals help maintain or challenge hegemony. “Traditional” intellectuals support the current system, while “organic” intellectuals come from lower classes and speak for their needs. These organic intellectuals can fight against dominant ideas.
Balance of Consent and Coercion: Gramsci believed that to keep hegemony, the ruling class needs both agreement and the ability to use force. This balance is key to understanding how political stability and change happen.
– Counter-Hegemony: Gramsci recognized that groups can push back against dominant ideas, creating new hegemony. This struggle includes both cultural and political efforts to change the accepted narratives and gain support for different views.
Conclusion
Gramsci’s idea of hegemony helps us understand power in society by showing how ideas, culture, and politics work together. His thoughts on cultural hegemony and the role of intellectuals have had a big impact on political theory, cultural studies, and social movements, helping us analyze how power is held and challenged.
Antonio Gramsci’s Contributions
Major Works and Theories
– The Prison Notebooks: This is Gramsci’s most important work, written while he was in prison. It includes notes on many subjects like philosophy, history, and politics. Some key ideas are:
– Cultural Hegemony: Gramsci talks about how the ruling classes keep control not just through force but by spreading their ideas through cultural institutions.
– War of Position: He explains the difference between a “war of position” (a fight for ideas in society) and a “war of maneuver” (a direct fight, often military). In societies where the ruling class is strong, he believes a war of position is needed to challenge the current system.
– Passive Revolution: This idea shows how changes in society can happen without big revolutions, often through reforms that the ruling class uses to stay in control.
– Notes on Italian History: In this work, Gramsci looks at Italy’s political situation and how different social forces interact. He discusses Italian nationalism and the roles of different social classes, which helps us understand political movements.
– The Modern Prince: This essay compares Machiavelli’s ideas with modern politics. Gramsci argues that a political party is needed to lead the working class in their fight for power. He believes political organizations should be based on the real experiences of the people they represent.
Relevance to Comparative Politics
– Understanding Power Dynamics: Gramsci’s ideas about cultural hegemony help analyze power in different political systems. By looking at how ideas are formed and kept, we can better understand political authority and resistance.
– Role of Civil Society: Gramsci highlights civil society as a key area for ideological battles. This shows how social movements, NGOs, and local groups can shape political outcomes.
– Analyzing Political Change: His idea of passive revolution helps explain how gradual changes can occur in politics without full revolutions. This is seen in places where governments make reforms to reduce dissent while keeping their power.
– Counter-Hegemony: Gramsci’s approach helps us understand how marginalized groups fight against dominant ideas. This is important for studying social movements and resistance in different situations.
– Influence on Postcolonial Studies: Gramsci’s theories also impact postcolonial studies, where scholars look at how colonial powers use culture to maintain control. This is important for understanding the impacts of colonialism and the fight for identity in former colonies.
Conclusion
Antonio Gramsci’s ideas on power, cultural struggle, and civil society are still very important in political studies today. His insights help us analyze the complexities of power, ideas, and social change in various political systems, aiding scholars and leaders in dealing with current political issues.
Case Studies
Examples of Hegemony in Various Contexts
– United States: The American Dream and Neoliberal Hegemony
– Summary: The American Dream is the belief that anyone can succeed with hard work. This idea supports individual success and is linked to economic policies that favor free markets and less government control.
– Hegemonic Structures: The media and schools spread this belief, shaping how people view success. This can hide the real problems that some groups face in society.
– Italy: Fascist Hegemony under Mussolini
– Summary: Mussolini’s regime promoted nationalism and pride in the state through propaganda and controlling education.
– Hegemonic Structures: The regime used cultural tools to spread fascist ideas and create a common identity, pushing aside opposing views.
– India: Hindu Nationalism and the BJP
– Summary: The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) promotes Hindu nationalism, focusing on a Hindu identity in a diverse country, which can harm secularism and minority rights.
– Hegemonic Structures: The BJP uses media and education to boost Hindu culture while downplaying other communities, leading to division and marginalization of minorities.
– South Africa: Post-Apartheid Hegemony
– Summary: After apartheid, the African National Congress (ANC) wanted to promote unity and nation-building, but faced issues with inequality and corruption.
– Hegemonic Structures: The ANC tried to create a unified story, but ongoing social issues and opposition groups show the difficulties in maintaining this new order.
Analysis of Hegemonic Structures
– Cultural Institutions: Hegemony often depends on cultural institutions like schools and media to spread dominant ideas, shaping how people think and act.
– Public Consent: Gramsci noted that hegemony is maintained not just by force, but also by gaining people’s agreement through cultural stories that align with their values, making the dominant ideas feel normal.
– Resistance and Counter-Hegemony: Hegemonic structures can be challenged by groups that resist dominant ideas. These counter-movements arise as marginalized groups seek recognition and representation.
– Adaptability: Hegemonic structures can change in response to social movements and public opinion. This shows how dominant ideas can shift to stay relevant.
Conclusion
Studying hegemony through these examples helps us understand power dynamics in politics. Analyzing these structures shows how ideas influence political actions and social movements, and how different groups fight for power and representation. Gramsci’s ideas on cultural hegemony are still useful for examining these issues today.
Post-materialism (Ronald Inglehart)
Introduction to Post-materialism
Definition and Key Concepts
– Post-materialism is a theory that shows how people’s values shift from focusing on basic needs like money and safety (materialist values) to focusing on things like self-expression, personal freedom, caring for the environment, and quality of life (post-materialist values). This change usually happens in wealthier societies and among younger generations.
– Key Ideas:
– Materialist Values: These values focus on basic needs like income, jobs, and safety. They are more important in societies that struggle economically.
– Post-materialist Values: In richer societies, people start caring more about self-expression, personal growth, and fairness. This leads to a greater focus on issues like protecting the environment, human rights, and gender equality.
– Generational Change: Inglehart believes that values change over time, especially as younger people grow up in better economic conditions than their parents.
Historical Development
– Modernization Theories: Inglehart’s ideas build on the idea that as societies grow and develop, their social structures, values, and political actions change. Economic growth leads to better education, which makes people focus more on post-materialist values.
– Surveys and Research: Inglehart used surveys, especially the World Values Survey, to study how values change in different countries. His findings showed that wealthier countries tend to have more post-materialist values.
– Cultural Changes in the 1960s: The 1960s was a time of big social and political changes, with movements for civil rights, feminism, environmental protection, and peace. These movements showed a growing desire for social justice and individual freedom, moving away from materialist concerns.
– Crisis and Change: Inglehart notes that times of economic or social crisis can push people to adopt post-materialist values. For example, the oil crises in the 1970s made people rethink what was important and focus more on sustainability and quality of life.
Conclusion
Ronald Inglehart’s idea of post-materialism helps us understand how people’s priorities change in today’s world. By looking at how we move from materialist to post-materialist values, we can better understand how economic security affects political views, social movements, and public policy. This theory is still important for discussing current issues like environmental sustainability, social fairness, and individual rights.
Ronald Inglehart’s Theories
Major Contributions and Ideas
– Value Shift: Inglehart believes that as people’s basic needs are met, they start to care more about things like self-expression and quality of life instead of just material needs. This change helps explain how people behave politically in developed countries.
– Silent Revolution: He calls the cultural changes that began in the late 1960s the “Silent Revolution.” This refers to slow changes in values that often go unnoticed, leading to a more accepting and participatory political culture, especially among younger people.
– Values and Politics: Inglehart connects changing values to how people engage in politics. Those who prioritize post-materialist values are more likely to support environmental issues, gender equality, and social justice.
– Development and Values: His research shows that as countries develop economically, people tend to adopt more post-materialist values. He studies this through comparisons between different countries and over time.
– World Values Survey: Inglehart helped start the World Values Survey, which gathers information on people’s values and beliefs around the world. This survey supports his theories and helps compare cultural values and political views globally.
Impact on Political Culture Studies
– New Focus: Inglehart changed the focus of political culture studies from just economic issues to include cultural values. This broadens the way politics is analyzed.
– Influence on Other Fields: His work has affected many areas, such as sociology and political science, leading to new ideas and methods in studying political culture.
– Understanding Social Movements: His focus on post-materialist values helps explain modern social movements, especially those related to the environment and human rights. Researchers use his ideas to see how value changes affect activism.
– Research Methods: Inglehart’s work inspired many studies that look at how values change over time due to economic and social shifts. His emphasis on using real data has been important for understanding political culture.
– Globalization: His theories also help explain how globalization affects cultural values. As societies share ideas, the rise of post-materialist values is a key topic in discussions about cultural change versus local traditions.
Conclusion
Ronald Inglehart has greatly influenced the study of political culture by focusing on post-materialism. His insights into how values change, how they affect political behavior, and how they relate to economic development have provided important tools for understanding today’s political landscape. By highlighting the role of cultural values, Inglehart has enriched the study of political culture in a fast-changing world.
Applications in Comparative Politics
Case Studies and Examples
– Scandinavian Countries: Welfare and Environment
– Overview: Countries like Sweden, Denmark, and Norway show strong post-materialist values, especially in caring for the environment and ensuring fairness. They have strong social welfare systems that focus on the well-being of their citizens.
– Post-Materialist Values: People support environmental projects, gender equality, and social justice. Citizens are actively involved in politics that promote sustainable development, moving away from just focusing on economic stability.
– United States: Growing Progressive Movements
– Overview: Movements like Black Lives Matter, the Women’s March, and youth climate activism show that many young people in the U.S. care about post-materialist values.
– Post-Materialist Values: These groups focus on social justice, equality, and protecting the environment, moving away from traditional economic concerns. Polls show that younger voters care more about these issues.
– Latin America: The Pink Tide
– Overview: The “Pink Tide” refers to leftist movements in Latin America in the early 2000s that pushed for social fairness, human rights, and environmental care.
– Post-Materialist Values: Leaders like Evo Morales in Bolivia and Lula da Silva in Brazil focus on issues like indigenous rights and social justice, showing a move towards more inclusive politics.
– South Korea: Youth Activism
– Overview: South Korean youth are active in fighting for democracy, human rights, and environmental issues, especially after protests that led to the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye.
– Post-Materialist Values: Young people are focused on accountability and social justice, reflecting a shift towards values that prioritize human rights and citizen involvement.
Post-materialist Values in Different Societies
– Western Europe: Post-materialist values are strong here, where economic growth and social security lead people to focus on self-expression, environmentalism, and social justice. Surveys show that citizens prioritize quality of life and human rights.
– East Asia: In countries like Japan and South Korea, younger people are starting to value issues like gender equality and environmental sustainability, even though older generations still focus on traditional material concerns.
– Emerging Economies: In countries like Brazil and India, post-materialist values are becoming more visible. Social movements for environmental protection and human rights are growing, especially among young people.
– Developing Countries: In less developed nations, material concerns are still common, but urban youth are starting to show interest in social change, human rights, and environmental issues as economic conditions improve.
Conclusion
Inglehart’s ideas about post-materialism help us understand how cultural values affect political actions and social movements in different places. By looking at various examples, we can see how people’s priorities are changing and what this means for political involvement and social change today. The rise of post-materialist issues shows that Inglehart’s theories are important for understanding current political and societal shifts.
Social Capital (R. Putnam)
Understanding Social Capital
Definition and Importance
– Social Capital means the connections, relationships, and shared values among people in a community that help them work together. It is different from money or personal skills, focusing on the social side of creating value.
– Importance:
– Community Unity: Social capital helps bring people together, allowing them to collaborate on shared goals.
– Community Involvement: More social capital leads to more people participating in civic activities like voting, which is good for democracy. Communities with strong social ties usually see higher voter turnout.
– Economic Gains: Having good social networks can help businesses and encourage new ideas, as trust and cooperation help in making deals and sharing information.
– Well-being: Strong social ties help individuals and communities by providing support and building resilience during tough times.
Key Components: Trust, Networks, and Norms
– Trust:
– Trust is crucial for social capital. When people trust each other, they can work together better and need fewer rules to guide their actions. Trust helps people feel they belong and motivates them to participate in community activities.
– Networks:
– Networks are the connections between people in a community, including formal groups like organizations and informal ones like friendships. Strong networks help share information and resources, making it easier for people to find support and opportunities. Joining community groups helps build social capital.
– Norms:
– Norms are the shared rules and expectations that guide how people behave in a community. They help set standards for working together and helping each other.
– Strong social norms encourage cooperation and support, making it more likely for communities to come together in times of need.
Conclusion
Robert Putnam’s idea of social capital shows how important social networks, trust, and shared values are for cooperation and community involvement. Understanding social capital is key to seeing how communities work, how they handle challenges, and how democracy functions. Putnam’s work highlights the value of building strong social relationships for a better society.
Robert Putnam’s Contributions
Major Works and Theories
– Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000):
– In this book, Putnam looks at how social connections in the U.S. have weakened since the 1970s. He believes that people are less connected to family, friends, and community groups, which reduces trust and involvement in society.
– Main Points: He shows that fewer people are joining groups like bowling leagues. He thinks this is due to more people moving to suburbs, the rise of technology, and changes in family life.
– Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (1993):
– In this earlier study, Putnam investigates how community involvement affects government quality in Italy. He finds that areas where people are more engaged do better in governance and public services.
– Important Findings: He stresses that local traditions of community involvement help build trust and teamwork among citizens, which is important for good government.
– The Civic Community: A Community’s Capacity for Collective Action (with other scholars):
– In this joint study, Putnam and his colleagues look at how social capital helps communities work together to solve problems. They discuss how trust and community involvement are key to tackling local challenges.
– Main Ideas: This work underlines that social capital is vital for communities to stay strong and respond to issues together.
Influence on Comparative Politics
– Understanding Civil Society: Putnam’s work has helped people understand how civil society affects political systems. His focus on social capital has led researchers to look at how community groups support democracy and accountability.
– Political Culture: His ideas have been used to study how social capital affects political behavior and participation. He encourages looking at social factors, not just economic or institutional ones.
– Governance Studies: Putnam’s research on social capital and governance quality has inspired studies comparing how trust and social networks affect political results in different places.
– International Studies: His concepts of social capital and civic involvement have been used in studies across countries to see how culture and history shape social connections and political participation.
– Policy Influence: Putnam’s findings have impacted public policy, encouraging efforts to build social capital through community projects, civic education, and support for community organizations. Policymakers see the benefits of social capital for stronger communities and better democracy.
Conclusion
Robert Putnam’s work on social capital has greatly influenced the study of politics. His insights into social networks, trust, and community involvement are important for understanding political behavior and governance. By focusing on the role of social capital in democracy, Putnam’s ideas continue to inspire research and discussions on strengthening communities and democratic participation around the world.
Case Studies
Examples of Social Capital in Practice
- Italian Regions: Civic Traditions and Governance
– Context: Robert Putnam looked at how people in Northern and Southern Italy engage with their communities and how this affects their local governments.
– Findings: Northern Italy has more active citizens and trust, leading to better governance. Southern Italy has less civic involvement and faces issues like corruption.
– Implications: This shows that strong community ties can improve government effectiveness and help solve local problems.
- Community Resilience in Post-Katrina New Orleans
– Context: After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, New Orleans communities used social capital to recover.
– Findings: Local groups and networks provided vital support and resources, helping people work together to rebuild.
– Implications: This case shows that social capital helps communities recover from crises by promoting teamwork and resource-sharing.
- 3. Volunteerism and Civic Engagement in the United States
– Context: Research shows that social capital affects how much people volunteer and engage in their communities across the U.S.
– Findings: Areas with more social capital have more people volunteering and being active in civic life, which strengthens democracy.
– Implications: This highlights how social capital encourages active citizenship and community involvement.
- Social Capital in Scandinavian Countries
– Context: Countries like Sweden, Norway, and Denmark are known for high social capital, with strong welfare systems and trust among citizens.
– Findings: These countries show high civic engagement and effective governance thanks to strong social networks.
– Implications: This example shows that social capital supports democracy and helps create a strong, united society.
Analysis of Social Capital in Various Political Systems
- Democratic Systems
– Characteristics: High social capital leads to more political participation and better governance in democracies.
– Analysis: Countries with strong social ties see more voter turnout and civic involvement, resulting in a more engaged citizenry and accountable government.
- Authoritarian Regimes
– Characteristics: In authoritarian countries, social capital can be limited by the government.
– Analysis: These regimes may weaken social ties and trust, but informal networks can still provide ways for people to resist and act together.
- Transitioning Democracies
– Characteristics: In countries moving from authoritarian rule to democracy, social capital is vital.
– Analysis: Building social capital helps develop democratic behaviors, allowing communities to engage politically and hold leaders accountable.
- Post-Conflict Societies
– Characteristics: In places recovering from conflict, social capital can be both a challenge and a benefit.
– Analysis: Efforts to rebuild trust and social ties are crucial for peace and stability after conflicts.
Conclusion
These case studies show how important social capital is for political systems and community life. It helps improve governance in democracies and supports recovery during crises. Understanding how social capital works in different contexts can help us see its role in building strong communities and effective governments.