In this post, notes of “Unit 2: Popular Movements and Reforms in the 19th Century” from “DSC- 3: History of modern china 1840- 1950s ” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
1. Taiping and Boxer Movements – Genesis, Ideology, Nature
1. Introduction to Popular Movements
– Definition and Characteristics
- Popular movements in 19th-century China were large groups of people coming together to fight against social, economic, and political problems. These movements often started because of unfair treatment, foreign control, and unhappiness with the Qing dynasty.
- Characteristics of popular movements included:
- Mass mobilization: Many peasants, workers, and ignored groups joined together.
- Charismatic leadership: Strong leaders inspired people to support their cause.
- Rejection of the status quo: These movements wanted to change or improve current political, economic, or social systems.
- Religious or ideological beliefs: Movements like the Taiping and Boxer uprisings were based on religious or national ideas.
- Violent resistance: Many movements involved fighting back, which often led to harsh reactions from the government.
– Historical Context and Background
- Qing Dynasty Decline: By the early 19th century, the Qing dynasty was losing power due to problems like corruption, poor management, slow economy, and pressure from foreign countries. This weakness helped popular movements grow.
- Opium Wars and Foreign Encroachment: The First (1839-1842) and Second (1856-1860) Opium Wars ended badly for the Qing, resulting in unfair treaties that gave away land like Hong Kong and special rights to foreigners. This angered many, especially against foreign missionaries and Western countries, leading to movements like the Boxer Uprising.
- Social Inequality: Most of China’s people were peasants facing heavy taxes, lack of land, and natural disasters, leading to widespread unhappiness and uprisings.
2. Taiping Movement
– Genesis:
- Origins and Founding of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom:
- The Taiping Movement started in the 1850s, led by Hong Xiuquan, who had failed his exams and had a religious vision. He thought he was Jesus Christ’s brother, chosen to lead a new kingdom.
- Hong gathered support from peasants in southern China, founding the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in 1851, where he ruled based on his religious ideas.
- Hong Xiuquan and the Influence of Christianity:
- Hong’s beliefs were influenced by Christian missionaries, but he had his own views. He thought the Qing dynasty was corrupt and that the Chinese people were the true “chosen ones” misled by their leaders.
– Ideology:
- Religious Beliefs and Practices:
- The Taiping ideology mixed Christianity with traditional Chinese ideas from Confucianism and Daoism. Hong wanted a theocratic state with strict moral rules.
- The movement banned opium, alcohol, gambling, and foot-binding, promoting a Heavenly Kingdom where people shared property and lived in peace.
- Social and Economic Reforms Proposed by the Taipings:
- The Taiping government wanted to change society by:
- Land redistribution: Taking away private property and sharing land equally.
- Gender equality: Giving women more rights and allowing them to join the military.
- Socialism-like reforms: Encouraging communal living and equality.
– Nature of the Movement:
- Organizational Structure and Leadership:
- The Taiping army was organized with a clear hierarchy, led by Hong Xiuquan and important military leaders like Yang Xiuqing and Li Xiucheng.
- The movement was organized but heavily relied on Hong’s leadership.
- Military Campaigns and Major Battles:
- The Taiping army took major cities, including Nanjing, which became their capital in 1853.
- They fought against Qing forces in several battles, but internal conflicts and strong counterattacks led to their decline.
- Impact on Chinese Society and Governance:
- The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) was one of the deadliest conflicts, causing 20-30 million deaths.
- Even though the Taiping were defeated, the rebellion weakened the Qing dynasty and led to more foreign influence and political instability.
3. Boxer Movement
– Genesis:
- Origins and Rise of the Boxers:
- The Boxer Uprising (1899-1901) grew from rising anger against foreigners, Christians, and imperialism in China.
- The Boxers, a secret society called Yihequan, practiced traditional martial arts and believed they could become invulnerable through magic.
- The movement spread quickly in northern China among peasants angry at foreign missionaries and the growing foreign presence.
- Socio-Political and Economic Factors:
- The influence of foreign powers and missionaries created divisions. Many were upset about foreigners living in China and not following its laws.
- Economic struggles from natural disasters and foreign policies increased local frustrations, as the Boxers promised to restore China’s power and remove foreign influence.
– Ideology:
- Anti-Foreign and Anti-Christian Sentiments:
- The Boxers were against the spread of Christianity and the growing number of converts, believing it harmed Chinese culture.
- They targeted foreign missionaries and anyone seen as collaborating with them.
- Traditional Chinese Beliefs and Practices:
- The Boxers aimed to revive Chinese traditions and push out foreign influence, using ancient spiritual and martial arts practices.
– Nature of the Movement:
- Organizational Structure and Leadership:
- The movement was made up of various local groups and secret societies without a central organization.
- Local leaders emerged from different areas, with figures like Zhang Dejiang and Cui Jian leading in their regions.
- Major Events and Conflicts:
- The Boxers attacked foreign nationals and Chinese Christians in 1899, leading to violence in northern China.
- The Qing government initially hesitated but later supported the Boxers, causing conflicts with foreign powers.
- In 1900, the Eight-Nation Alliance intervened and captured Beijing, forcing the Qing to accept severe penalties in the Boxer Protocol of 1901.
- Suppression and Aftermath:
- The Boxer Rebellion was defeated, resulting in harsh penalties for China:
- Indemnities: China had to pay large sums to foreign powers.
- Loss of sovereignty: The Qing dynasty was weakened and had to allow foreign troops in Beijing.
- The rebellion harmed the Boxer’s reputation and further damaged the Qing government’s legitimacy.
- It also set the stage for the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, which led to the end of the Qing dynasty and the creation of the Republic of China.
This overview covers the main points of the Taiping and Boxer Movements, important uprisings in 19th-century China that significantly affected Chinese society, politics, and the Qing dynasty’s downfall. Feel free to ask more specific questions!
1. Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895)
Introduction and Goals:
- Background: The Self-Strengthening Movement started after the Taiping Rebellion and the Second Opium War, when foreign countries were taking advantage of China. The Qing dynasty was weak and needed to modernize to survive.
- Treaties forced China to trade with other countries and give up lands like Hong Kong and Taiwan.
- Reformers wanted to strengthen China’s economy and military to protect the country and avoid further shame from foreign powers.
- Goals:
- The main goal was to make the Qing dynasty stronger by modernizing the military, economy, and society.
- Reformers aimed to use Western technology while keeping traditional Chinese values, a mix known as “Confucian modernization.”
- They wanted to improve national defense to protect against foreign threats and internal rebellions.
Key People:
- Zuo Zongtang (General Tso) led military reforms and modernized the army.
- Li Hongzhang helped set up modern military schools and promoted industrial projects.
- Wang Tao and Kang Youwei also pushed for some cultural and political changes to support modernization.
Main Actions:
- Military and Industrial Improvements:
- Focused on modernizing the military with Western technology and training.
- Established arsenals and shipyards to produce modern weapons and ships.
- Started projects like railroads and mining to boost infrastructure and economy, though these faced issues like corruption.
- Educational Reforms:
- Encouraged studying Western science and military tactics.
- Sent missions abroad to learn new knowledge and set up a few Western-style schools.
- Translated Western works into Chinese to support modernization.
Challenges:
- Resistance:
- Many traditional Confucian officials opposed the reforms, fearing they would disrupt Chinese values.
- Empress Dowager Cixi was cautious about the reforms and favored traditional methods.
- Corruption and inefficiency also hindered reform efforts.
- Foreign Pressures:
- Countries like Britain and Japan pushed China for favorable trade and territory.
- Japan’s fast modernization highlighted China’s struggles.
Results:
- Mixed Success:
- Some efforts, like modern arsenals and railroads, were successful, but the military did not improve enough to defend against Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War.
- The movement failed to create a strong industrial base or significantly reform the military.
- Long-Term Effects:
- The movement set the stage for future reforms, but its failure highlighted the need for deeper changes in society, economy, and politics, leading to more drastic reforms in the early 20th century.
2. Hundred Days of Reform (1898)
Background:
- Crisis in Late 19th Century China:
- By the late 1800s, China faced serious problems. The First Sino-Japanese War showed that China was weaker than Japan, leading to losses like Taiwan.
- Foreign powers increasingly took advantage of China, and the Boxer Rebellion led to more foreign control.
- Reformers looked to Japan’s successful modernization as a model for China.
- Influential Reformers:
- Thinkers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao wanted to introduce significant changes to politics, economy, and culture.
- Emperor Guangxu was eager to start radical reforms.
Key Reforms:
- Government Changes:
- Proposed a constitutional monarchy for a more efficient government with merit-based appointments.
- Suggested a new legal system and changes to the examination process for government positions.
- Economic, Educational, and Military Reforms:
- Aimed to modernize China’s economy with better infrastructure, including railroads and factories.
- Suggested new schools to teach modern science and technology.
- Wanted a well-trained army based on Western models.
Major Figures:
- Emperor Guangxu: Young and progressive, he supported radical reforms.
- Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao: Key reformers who wanted to save China from decline.
- Empress Dowager Cixi: Opposed the reforms, fearing they threatened her power and tradition.
Results:
- Implementation Issues:
- While the reforms were announced, many were not fully carried out due to resistance from conservative officials.
- Coup d’État:
- In September 1898, Cixi staged a coup, placing Guangxu under house arrest and ending the reforms. Conservative forces took control again, and many reformers faced imprisonment or exile.
- Impact on Future Reforms:
- Though unsuccessful, the Hundred Days of Reform highlighted the need for change and led to discussions on modernizing China.
- Its failure weakened the Qing dynasty and sped up revolutionary movements, including the Boxer Rebellion and the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 that ultimately ended the Qing rule.
Both the Self-Strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days of Reform were important attempts for China to modernize and address internal and external challenges. Despite their limitations, they laid the groundwork for future changes and the eventual decline of the Qing dynasty.