In this post, notes of “Unit 2: Democracy and Militarism” from “DSC- 3: History of Modern Japan (c. 1868 – 1950s)” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year
Meiji Constitution
Background and Drafting Process
The Meiji Constitution, officially called the Constitution of the Empire of Japan (1889–1947), was a key legal document that established Japan’s political system during the Meiji era and later. It was created to help Japan modernize and stay competitive with Western countries in the late 1800s.
- Western Influences: During the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan aimed to strengthen itself by adopting Western ideas in politics, law, and economics. The Meiji Constitution was inspired by European constitutions, especially the Prussian Constitution from Germany, which influenced the centralization of power and the emperor’s role. The French Constitution also contributed to its structured format.
- Key Figures in Drafting: The main person behind the Meiji Constitution was Ito Hirobumi, a notable Japanese leader who studied in Europe and was influenced by Western political ideas. He led the committee that drafted the constitution. Other important contributors included Yamagata Aritomo and Kido Takayoshi, but Ito’s leadership was essential in shaping the constitution.
Structure and Principles
The Meiji Constitution set up the structure of the Japanese government and defined the power balance between the emperor and state institutions.
- Emperor’s Role: The emperor (tennō) held ultimate power under the Meiji Constitution. Unlike in many Western constitutional monarchies, where the monarch is mostly symbolic, the Japanese emperor had real authority. Article 1 stated that the emperor was “sacred and inviolable,” highlighting the concentration of power in the monarchy. The emperor could issue laws, lead the military, and veto legislation, although the cabinet managed daily politics under the emperor’s guidance.
- Separation of Powers: The constitution outlined a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, but with key limitations:
- Executive: The emperor led the executive branch, having significant powers like appointing ministers and declaring war. The cabinet, headed by the prime minister, handled everyday governance but worked under the emperor’s direction.
- Legislative: The Imperial Diet was Japan’s legislature, made up of two houses: the House of Peers (upper house with hereditary members and appointed officials) and the House of Representatives (lower house with elected members, though voting rights were limited). The Diet’s powers were limited, as it could not challenge the emperor’s decisions.
- Judicial: The judicial branch was supposed to be independent but was still influenced by the emperor. Judges were appointed by the emperor, maintaining strong ties to the central authority.
While the constitution aimed to create a system of checks and balances, the emperor’s powers were much greater than those typically seen in Western constitutions, which reduced the independence of the legislative and judicial branches.
Political Institutions
Formation of the Diet (Imperial Parliament)
The Imperial Diet (or Kokkai) was created under the Meiji Constitution as Japan’s national legislature, serving as a key part of the government. It aimed to blend modern political ideas with Japan’s traditional hierarchy. The Diet had two parts: the House of Representatives (Lower House) and the House of Peers (Upper House). Although the Diet was responsible for discussing and passing laws, its power was ultimately limited by the emperor, who held the highest authority.
The establishment of the Diet was a major step in modernizing Japan’s political system, reflecting the Meiji leaders’ desire to introduce Western political concepts while maintaining Japan’s imperial traditions. The Diet first met in 1890 and was meant to be a place for discussing national policies, but the emperor’s powers were mostly unchallenged.
House of Representatives and House of Peers
The House of Representatives and the House of Peers had different roles within the Imperial Diet:
- House of Representatives: This lower house had 500 members who were elected by a limited group of men with certain income levels. They proposed and debated laws and represented the people, but their power was restricted by the emperor.
- House of Peers: This upper house was made up of unelected members, including nobles, appointed officials, and others with titles. Members served for life and had significant influence, especially in revising laws from the House of Representatives. However, like the lower house, they also had to follow the emperor’s authority.
Both houses were important in making laws, but the emperor could dissolve the House of Representatives and had the final say over its decisions, ensuring his ultimate control.
Civil Rights and Responsibilities
Rights of the Subjects and Limitations
Under the Meiji Constitution, Japanese citizens (called “subjects” at the time) were given limited civil rights. These rights were seen as privileges granted by the emperor rather than inherent rights, as in many Western countries. While the constitution listed some freedoms, it also imposed restrictions that reinforced the emperor’s power.
- Granted Rights: Subjects had rights like freedom of speech, assembly, association, religion, and property. However, these rights were granted at the emperor’s discretion and could be taken away if needed.
- Limitations: The constitution allowed the emperor and the government to suspend these rights during crises, wars, or threats to public order. Laws like the Press Law of 1909 limited criticism of the emperor and the government. The government also had extensive police powers to suppress any movements seen as a threat.
Thus, while civil rights were acknowledged, they were conditional and could be restricted by the state or the emperor.
Responsibilities and Duties of Citizens
Along with rights, the Meiji Constitution stressed the responsibilities of Japanese subjects, reflecting the authoritarian nature of the government.
- Obedience to the Emperor: The main duty of citizens was to show loyalty to the emperor and the state. This loyalty meant obeying laws and contributing to the nation’s welfare.
- Military Service: Citizens were expected to serve in the military when called upon, as Japan sought to modernize and strengthen its military. Conscription laws required young men to serve for a period.
- Public Duties: Citizens were also expected to help the country through public service and work, promoting social harmony. This focus on civic duty highlighted the idea that the state represented the emperor’s will.
Overall, the Meiji Constitution set up a relationship where rights were conditional, and obligations to the emperor and the nation were prioritized. This reflected the constitution’s authoritarian character and its emphasis on loyalty and national unity.
Failure of Parliamentary Democracy; Militarism and Fascism
Early Challenges and Political Turbulence
- Weaknesses in the Meiji Constitution:
The Meiji Constitution had serious flaws that made it hard for Japan to develop a stable parliamentary democracy. A major problem was that the emperor had absolute power. Although there was a bicameral legislature (the Imperial Diet), the emperor could dissolve the House of Representatives and choose important officials, including the prime minister. The emperor also had full control over the military, which allowed military leaders to interfere in politics. This setup made the political system unstable since the cabinet and parliament couldn’t fully control the government or military. - Political Parties and Their Struggles for Power:
During the early Meiji period, political parties started to form, but the move towards democracy was slow. Even with the Imperial Diet established in 1890, political parties had little power and often struggled to influence the government. The Meiji oligarchs, who were the leaders after the 1868 Meiji Restoration, still held significant power and often undermined the parties. This struggle for power within a divided party system weakened parliamentary democracy, as leaders were usually chosen from elites, and popular movements had little impact.
Economic and Social Factors
- Impact of Economic Crises and Social Unrest:
Economic problems, especially in the early 20th century, worsened Japan’s political issues. Rapid industrialization created large economic gaps, leaving many farmers and workers in poor conditions. This led to widespread social unrest and protests, including strikes in the 1920s and 1930s. The government’s failure to address economic inequality led to growing disillusionment with the political system. - Influence of the Great Depression on Japan:
The global Great Depression (1929) severely affected Japan’s economy. Exports dropped, agricultural prices fell, and unemployment rose. This economic crisis increased social tensions and reduced faith in parliamentary democracy. As conditions worsened, more people turned to radical movements, such as militarism and ultra-nationalism, hoping to restore order and power to the state. These economic difficulties made extreme ideologies more appealing, destabilizing Japan’s political system and pushing it toward authoritarianism and militarism.
Rise of Militarism
- Role of the Military in Politics:
The military became very influential in Japanese politics, especially after the 1920s. The Meiji Constitution gave the emperor supreme military authority, making the military independent of civilian control. By the 1930s, military officers played a significant role in shaping Japan’s policies. They saw themselves as protectors of Japan’s honor and the emperor’s wishes. Events like the Manchurian Incident (1931), where military officers invaded Manchuria without civilian approval, highlighted the military’s growing power. - Key Military Figures and Their Ideologies:
Leaders like Tojo Hideki and Hiranuma Kiichiro represented the military’s increasing role in politics. Tojo, who later became Prime Minister during World War II, strongly supported militaristic expansionism. Military leaders promoted an ideology of imperialism, believing Japan was destined to lead Asia, which they called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Their commitment to military strength and the emperor’s divine status led to Japan’s aggressive foreign policies in the 1930s and 1940s.
Fascist Movements and Nationalism
- Rise of Ultra-Nationalist Groups:
In the 1930s, ultra-nationalist and fascist movements emerged, aiming to replace parliamentary democracy with a centralized, authoritarian government. These groups emphasized loyalty to the emperor and pushed for militarism and imperial expansion. Organizations like the Black Dragon Society and the Imperial Way Faction called for the overthrow of democratic institutions and the establishment of a nationalist and authoritarian state. - Ideological Foundations and Key Events:
Japanese fascism was based on a mix of Shintoism, militarism, and ultra-nationalism. Fascists believed in the divinity of the emperor and saw Japan as destined to lead Asia. Important events like the Manchurian Incident (1931), the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937), and Japan’s entry into World War II were driven by this ideology, aiming to expand Japan’s power in Asia.
End of Parliamentary Democracy
- Assassinations and Political Purges:
By the mid-1930s, political violence increased as the military and ultra-nationalists sought to eliminate opposition. Key leaders and officials who opposed militarism were targeted. The 1932 May 15 Incident, where Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated, marked a turning point toward military dominance. Another significant event was the 1936 February 26 Incident, when young military officers attempted a coup against the civilian government. Although unsuccessful, it showed the deep divisions in the political and military establishment and indicated the end of effective parliamentary democracy in Japan. - Establishment of a Militarist Government:
These events led to the establishment of a militarist government, with leaders like Hideki Tojo rising to power. By the late 1930s and early 1940s, Japan was effectively under military control. Political parties were sidelined, and civilian influence was greatly reduced. The government adopted aggressive militaristic policies, culminating in the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, which brought Japan into World War II.
Impact on Society and Foreign Relations
- Effects on Japanese Society and Culture:
As Japan became a militaristic and fascist state, society and culture underwent significant changes. Nationalism became central to life, with loyalty to the emperor emphasized. The military and government promoted a vision of sacrificial nationalism, urging citizens to prioritize the state over personal interests. Education was restructured to teach loyalty and obedience to the emperor, and the government controlled the media to suppress dissent, leading to a loss of freedom of expression. - Aggressive Foreign Policy and Expansionism:
Japan’s foreign policy grew more aggressive. The invasion of Manchuria (1931) was followed by further actions in China in 1937, and Japan’s alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy during World War II marked its imperial ambitions. The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere aimed to establish Japan’s control over East Asia. These aggressive actions led to widespread conflict in the region, including the Pacific War, ultimately resulting in Japan’s defeat in 1945.
The decline of parliamentary democracy, the rise of militarism, and Japan’s embrace of fascist ideals led to the devastation of World War II, reshaping Japan’s political and social landscape for many years.