In this post, notes of “Unit 3: Emergence of Nationalism” from “DSC- 3: History of modern China 1840- 1950s” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
1. The Revolution of 1911: Nature and Significance
1. Introduction to the 1911 Revolution
Background Before the Revolution
The Revolution of 1911, also known as the Xinhai Revolution, ended over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China under the Qing dynasty and started the Republic of China.
- Weakness of the Qing Dynasty: By the late 1800s, the Qing dynasty was in crisis. Foreign countries gained control in China through unfair treaties after events like the Opium Wars and the Boxer Uprising, showing the Qing government’s weakness.
- Internal Problems: The Qing dynasty faced corruption and several uprisings, which caused chaos. The Second Sino-Japanese War showed that China was behind in technology and military strength, especially compared to Japan.
- Foreign Control: China was divided into areas controlled by foreign powers, leading to anger among the Chinese people as these countries controlled trade and had special privileges.
- New Ideas: Western ideas about democracy and modernization started influencing Chinese thinkers. Reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao tried to make changes, but the Qing leaders resisted these efforts.
- Economic Struggles: Many people faced poverty, hunger, and natural disasters, leading to unhappiness due to high taxes and lack of rights.
- Rise of Revolutionary Groups: Secret societies and groups like the Tongmenghui, led by Sun Yat-sen, formed to push for the end of the Qing rule and the creation of a republic.
Key Events Before the Revolution
- First Sino-Japanese War: China’s defeat by Japan was a major embarrassment and led to calls for change.
- Boxer Uprising: This nationalist uprising failed and resulted in foreign military intervention, weakening the Qing further.
- Late Qing Reforms: After the Boxer Uprising, the Qing made some reforms, but they were too slow and not enough to solve the major issues.
- Rise of Revolutionary Actions: Secret societies and revolutionary groups grew across China, leading to frequent uprisings against the Qing government.
- Wuchang Uprising: On October 10, 1911, military officers in Wuchang rebelled, starting the revolution and spreading quickly to other areas.
2. Nature of the Revolution
Political and Social Changes
- Weak Imperial Rule: By 1911, the Qing dynasty could not govern effectively. Local leaders and military officials had more power than the central government, which was out of touch with the people.
- Social Change: There was a growing desire for reform and unity among students, intellectuals, and the middle class. The traditional Confucian order was being challenged, while many peasants were unhappy with social inequality.
- Military’s Role: Many military officers, unhappy with the Qing, were key players in the revolution. The army often supported local leaders or revolutionary groups rather than the Qing.
Key Leaders
- Sun Yat-sen: Known as the father of modern China, Sun Yat-sen led the revolutionary movement. He wanted a republic based on nationalism, democracy, and people’s welfare. Even though he was in exile during the revolution, his ideas were very influential.
- Yuan Shikai: A high-ranking military officer, Yuan initially helped the Qing but later switched sides. He became an important figure in the revolution and the new republic, although his ambition to be emperor caused further problems.
- Empress Dowager Cixi: The long-time ruler of China, she died in 1908, leaving the young and inexperienced Puyi as the last emperor. The Qing’s failure to modernize led to its downfall.
Revolutionary Ideas and Movements
- Nationalism: Sun Yat-sen’s ideas included three main principles:
- Nationalism: China should be united and free from foreign control.
- Democracy: The government should reflect the people’s will through elections.
- Livelihood: The welfare of the people should be prioritized.
- Anti-Manchu Feelings: Many revolutionaries saw the Qing as a foreign dynasty, pushing for Han Chinese rule.
- Social Reforms: There were calls for changes like land reform and ending the old examination system.
3. Major Events of the 1911 Revolution
Wuchang Uprising
- Date: October 10, 1911.
- What Happened: The Wuchang Uprising started when military officers rebelled against the Qing government. It was initially a reaction against corrupt officials but quickly turned into a larger revolution.
- This uprising marked the military’s shift away from the Qing and spread rapidly to other regions.
Spread of the Revolution
- Revolution Spreads: After the Wuchang Uprising, other provinces joined the revolution. By the end of October 1911, several provinces supported the cause.
- Formation of the Republic: In December 1911, revolutionaries set up a provisional government in Nanjing, naming Sun Yat-sen as its provisional president, despite him being abroad.
Establishment of the Republic of China
- End of the Qing Dynasty: In early 1912, the Qing dynasty abdicated, and Puyi, the last emperor, stepped down, ending imperial rule.
- The Republic of China: On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was created, starting a new chapter in Chinese history, but it faced many challenges ahead.
4. Importance of the Revolution
End of the Qing Dynasty
- The Xinhai Revolution ended the Qing dynasty, marking the fall of imperial rule in China and creating a sense of unity and nationalism.
Impact on Society and Government
- The Republic of China introduced a new political system, but it was unstable, with conflicts among different groups. The revolution changed social views, leading to new ideas about rights and citizenship.
Inspiration for Future Movements
- The 1911 Revolution inspired later movements, such as the rise of the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang. Sun Yat-sen’s ideas influenced future reforms, although the republic would take time to stabilize.
The 1911 Revolution was a major turning point in Chinese history, leading to significant changes for the future.
2. The May Fourth Movement of 1919
1. Background and Causes of the May Fourth Movement
Treaty of Versailles and Chinese Territorial Issues
The May Fourth Movement (1919) was an important event in modern Chinese history, driven by both international and local issues that led to protests and social unrest.
- The Treaty of Versailles (1919): After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles was signed to end the war. One key part of the treaty was giving territories that were under German control to Japan, including Shandong Province in China. This decision upset many Chinese people and intellectuals because it went against China’s hopes for recognition and showed that foreign control in China would continue. China had fought with the Allies during the war, hoping to regain lost territories, but instead, it felt humiliated by losing control to Japan.
- Territorial and Sovereignty Concerns: The Shandong issue sparked immediate protests, but it also highlighted the larger problem of foreign control and China’s struggle to maintain its sovereignty. The Chinese government, led by President Yuan Shikai, was seen as weak and unable to stand up to foreign powers, leading to disappointment among the Chinese people and intellectuals.
- Widespread National Discontent: The protests were not only about the Treaty of Versailles but also a response to foreign exploitation, government corruption, and the failure of the Qing dynasty to create real national change. The movement was a reaction to China’s sense of national shame and a desire for independence.
Intellectual and Cultural Awakening
- The Fall of the Qing Dynasty and the Early Republican Period: After the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, China faced instability. The Republic of China was founded, but the country struggled with internal conflicts and the central government’s weak control.
- The New Culture Movement (1915-1921): This movement was linked to the May Fourth Movement and arose from China’s weakness internationally. Intellectuals and students, led by figures like Chen Duxiu and Lu Xun, pushed for cultural change, rejecting traditional Confucian beliefs and adopting new Western ideas like democracy and science. This cultural awakening set the stage for the May Fourth protests.
- Social Reform and Modernization: Intellectuals called for social changes and modernization of China’s political and cultural systems. There was growing dissatisfaction with traditional customs like foot binding, arranged marriages, and the patriarchal family structure. They promoted a new identity based on rational thinking and science.
2. Ideological Foundations of the Movement
Emphasis on Science, Democracy, and Modernity
- Science and Rationalism: The May Fourth Movement was influenced by the importance of science for social and political progress. Leaders like Chen Duxiu believed that science and rational thinking were vital for China’s modernization, advocating for Western-style education in various fields while rejecting traditional metaphysical ideas.
- Democracy: The movement also supported democracy and individual rights, inspired by Western political ideas from the French Revolution and the American system. This aim was to replace the imperial system with a government more accountable to the people.
- Modernity: A main goal was to modernize Chinese society by adopting Western ideas, including progress, equality, and social justice, viewed as essential for a stronger China.
Critique of Traditional Confucian Values
- Rejection of Confucianism: The May Fourth Movement reacted against the long-standing influence of Confucianism, which promoted a strict social order and hierarchy. Many intellectuals believed these values hindered China’s modernization. Figures like Chen Duxiu argued that Confucianism had kept China from progressing and made it vulnerable to foreign control.
- Cultural Criticism: The critique included challenging gender roles and traditional family structures. Intellectuals pushed for women’s rights and called for the end of practices like foot binding and child marriage, aiming for greater individual freedoms.
Influence of New Cultural and Intellectual Trends
- Westernization: Western ideas, especially from Enlightenment philosophers, greatly influenced the movement. Thinkers like John Dewey and Herbert Spencer were read widely, promoting democracy, individual rights, and scientific thinking as necessary for China’s revival.
- Marxism and Socialism: Marxism and socialism began to influence many leaders of the movement, particularly those who helped found the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Li Dazhao played a key role in spreading Marxist ideas, appealing to students and intellectuals wanting to address economic inequalities.
3. Major Events and Activities
Student Protests and Demonstrations
- May 4, 1919: The May Fourth Movement started with a large student protest in Beijing against the Treaty of Versailles and the weak response of the Chinese government. Thousands of students gathered at Tiananmen Square, demanding that the government reject the treaty and protest the decision to give Shandong to Japan.
- National Strikes and Boycotts: The protests quickly spread to other cities like Shanghai and Nanjing. Along with student demonstrations, there were boycotts of Japanese goods and strikes in cities like Beijing, where students clashed with police. These protests reflected broader dissatisfaction with foreign control and the failures of the Chinese government.
Role of Intellectuals and Reformists
- Intellectuals played a crucial role in starting and guiding the movement. Writers like Lu Xun, Chen Duxiu, and Hu Shi used their works to promote ideas of modernization, science, and democracy.
- Chen Duxiu founded the journal New Youth, which became a key platform for advocating Western-style reforms and critiquing traditional Chinese culture. His ideas influenced Chinese thought and later movements.
Key Publications and Manifestos
- New Youth: Chen Duxiu’s journal was important for spreading the ideas of the May Fourth Movement, calling for radical reforms and modernization, and promoting ideas like vernacular Chinese, democracy, and scientific thinking.
- Manifestos and Pamphlets: During the protests, students and intellectuals wrote manifestos and pamphlets calling for political action, cultural change, and a new Chinese identity based on Western ideas of liberty and progress.
4. Significance and Impact of the May Fourth Movement
Political and Social Reforms Initiated
- The May Fourth Movement sparked a series of political and social reforms in China. It helped the rise of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with Marxist ideas gaining traction among intellectuals and students.
- It also led to calls for constitutional reforms, democratic elections, and civil rights. Although immediate political changes were limited, the ideas from this period eventually contributed to the fall of the traditional government and the rise of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
Spread of Nationalist Sentiments and Ideals
- The May Fourth Movement significantly spread nationalist feelings, encouraging Chinese people to demand their country’s sovereignty and resist foreign influence. The rejection of the Treaty of Versailles and anti-Japanese boycotts fostered national unity and a desire to protect China’s interests.
- The movement helped shape the desire for a modern, independent China, laying the groundwork for future nationalist movements led by figures like Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang (KMT), as well as the Chinese Communist Party.
Long-term Influence on Chinese Society and Subsequent Movements
- The May Fourth Movement was a turning point in Chinese history, leading to significant cultural and ideological changes that shaped China’s future in the 20th century.
- It inspired the rise of the Communist Party, which would dominate Chinese politics after 1949, as well as other reform movements. The focus on education, modernization, and scientific inquiry remained key to China’s development throughout the century.
In summary, the May Fourth Movement was a transformative period in Chinese history that challenged traditional values, promoted new political ideas, and set the stage for major changes to come.