Electoral Systems

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Electoral Systems

In this post, notes of “Unit 6: Electoral Systems” from “DSC 11: Concepts in Comparative Political Analysis” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.

1. Introduction to Electoral Systems

Definition and Importance

An electoral system is a set of rules that shows how votes are collected and counted, and how they decide who gets into power. It is very important in a democracy because it affects how people’s votes help form governments and shape politics.

Electoral systems affect:

  • Political results: They can change how many political parties there are, how power is shared, and how political competition works.
  • Representation: They determine how well election results reflect what voters want. For instance, some systems help big parties (like plurality systems) while others help small parties (like proportional representation systems).
  • Governability: The system can influence how stable a government is and how easily it can pass laws. Systems that create clear majorities (like first-past-the-post) can lead to more stable governments compared to those with many small parties (like mixed or proportional systems).

Electoral systems shape the kind of democracy a country has and how political power is arranged.

Key Components of Electoral Systems

Electoral systems have different parts that affect how they work:

1.      Electoral Formula: The way votes are turned into seats. This includes systems like:

  1. First-Past-the-Post (FPTP): The candidate with the most votes wins, even if they don’t have a majority (often used in plurality systems).
  2. Proportional Representation (PR): Seats are given based on the percentage of votes each party gets (like in list PR or single transferable vote).
  3. Mixed Systems: Combine features of both FPTP and PR.

2.      District Magnitude: How many representatives are chosen from a district. In FPTP, usually one representative is elected per district (low district magnitude), while in proportional systems, several representatives are elected from each district (high district magnitude).

3.      Type of Representation:

  1. Single-member districts (SMD): One representative per district (often used in FPTP).
  2. Multi-member districts (MMD): More than one representative per district (common in PR systems).

4.      Thresholds: Some systems, especially PR, may require a minimum number of votes for a party to earn seats in the legislature (like a 5% threshold in some European countries).

5.      Ballot Structure: How voters cast their votes. For example, in closed-list PR, voters choose a party, and candidates are selected from a set list; in open-list PR, voters can pick individual candidates within a party.

Electoral Procedures and Processes

The electoral process is the series of steps that happen during an election. The common steps include:

1.      Voter Registration: Eligible citizens must register to vote in many places. The rules for registering can affect how many people vote, especially if the process is complicated.

2.      Campaigning and Voting: Candidates and parties try to convince voters. The way people cast their votes can differ (like using paper ballots, electronic voting, or absentee ballots).

3.      Vote Counting: After voting, ballots are counted based on the rules of the electoral system. For instance:

  1. Plurality Systems: The candidate with the most votes wins.
  2. Proportional Systems: Seats are given based on how many votes each party or candidate received.

4.      Seat Allocation: In proportional systems, seats are given to parties based on their share of the votes. Different methods for this include:

  1. D’Hondt method: A formula used in many European countries to assign seats fairly.
  2. Sainte-Laguë method: Another way to allocate seats in PR systems.

5.      Electoral Outcomes and Representation: The final results depend on how votes are counted and turned into seats. This can affect how well elected representatives reflect the demographics of the voters and how they support policies that match voter interests.

6.      Post-Election Processes: After an election, results are confirmed, and governments are formed. This can include negotiations for coalitions, especially in systems with many small parties.

Conclusion

Electoral systems are important because they decide how votes become political power and representation. The type of electoral system affects how parties compete, what kind of government is created, how inclusive political participation is, and how democracy functions overall. Different countries use different systems based on their own political and cultural situations, and knowing these systems is essential for understanding any country’s political scene.

2. Types of Electoral Systems

First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)

What It Is:
FPTP is a voting system where the candidate with the most votes in an area wins. The winner does not need more than half the votes, just more than any other candidate.

How It Works:

  1. Voting: Voters pick one candidate from those running in their area.
  2. Counting: The candidate with the most votes wins.
  3. Seat Allocation: Each area elects one representative based on who gets the most votes.

History:

  • FPTP comes from the British voting system and is used in countries like the UK, India, Canada, and the US for Congress.
  • It became common in the 18th and 19th centuries because it is easy to use.

Advantages:

  • Simplicity: Easy for voters to understand and for officials to count.
  • Stability: Often leads to clear winners, making governments stable.
  • Local Representation: Candidates represent specific areas, giving communities a direct voice.

Disadvantages:

  • Unfair Results: The number of seats a party gets may not match the votes they receive. Smaller parties often lose out.
  • Wasted Votes: Votes for losing candidates do not count, which can frustrate voters.
  • Two-Party Focus: Tends to favor two major parties, limiting choices.

Examples:

  1. United Kingdom: Uses FPTP for general elections, often leading to majority governments from two main parties: the Labour Party and the Conservative Party.
  2. India: Also uses FPTP, resulting in coalition governments due to many parties competing.
  3. Canada: Canada’s elections sometimes show unfair results, like parties winning more seats than their overall votes suggest.

Proportional Representation (PR)

What It Is:
PR is a voting system that gives seats in the legislature based on the percentage of votes each party gets. It aims to reflect the overall vote share more accurately than FPTP.

How It Works:

  • Voters usually vote for parties or sometimes for individual candidates.
  • Seats are given based on the total votes each party receives.
  • In a pure PR system, almost every vote contributes to seat allocation.

Types of PR Systems:

1.      List PR:

  1. Voters choose a party list, and seats are given to parties based on their vote share.
  2. Example: In Israel, voters pick parties, and seats are divided according to votes received.

2.      Single Transferable Vote (STV):

  1. Voters rank candidates by preference.
  2. If no candidate wins enough votes, the one with the fewest is eliminated, and their votes go to the next choices until all seats are filled.
  3. Example: Ireland uses STV, allowing smaller parties to win seats.

History:

  • PR gained popularity in Europe in the early 20th century to improve representation, with Germany adopting it in 1919.
  • It became more common after World War II as countries sought better representation.

Advantages:

  • Fair Representation: Better reflects different political views.
  • Encourages Many Parties: Smaller parties can win seats, creating a richer political environment.
  • Higher Voter Turnout: Voters feel their votes matter more in PR systems.

Disadvantages:

  • Coalition Governments: Can lead to unstable governments needing multiple parties to work together.
  • Complexity: Some PR systems can be hard to understand.
  • Smaller Parties’ Influence: Small parties can have more power than their vote share suggests in coalitions.

Examples:

  1. Germany: Uses a mixed PR system, combining votes for parties and local representatives.
  2. Sweden: Uses a list-based PR system, leading to many parties often represented.
  3. Israel: Uses a closed-list PR system, making it easier for small parties to gain seats.

Mixed Representation Systems

What It Is:
Mixed Representation Systems combine aspects of both PR and majoritarian systems like FPTP. They aim to balance the benefits of both systems.

Types of Mixed Systems:

1.      Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP):

  1. Combines FPTP for some seats and PR for others. Voters usually have two votes: one for a local candidate and one for a party.
  2. Example: Germany and New Zealand use MMP.

2.      Parallel Voting:

  1. Involves voting for local representatives (usually FPTP) and for a party list (PR) separately.
  2. Example: Japan and South Korea use parallel voting.

History:

  • Mixed systems developed as a way to improve representation while still keeping local representation.
  • MMP was introduced in Germany after World War II for fairer representation.
  • New Zealand switched to MMP in 1996 after a public vote.

Advantages:

  • Balancing Proportionality and Stability: Keeps local representation while also being fairer in seat distribution.
  • Flexibility: Different mixed systems can be tailored to fit each country’s needs.

Disadvantages:

  • Complexity: Can confuse voters with separate votes for local and party representatives.
  • Unclear Results: Can still lead to coalition governments and some parties getting more seats than their vote share suggests.

Examples:

  1. New Zealand: After adopting MMP, it now has more diverse political representation.
  2. Japan: Uses parallel voting with both district and party votes.
  3. Italy: Currently uses a mixed system with features of both MMP and parallel voting.

Conclusion

The choice of electoral system greatly affects how people are represented, the competition between political parties, and how stable governments are. FPTP is simple and stable but can be unfair. PR gives a better picture of voter preferences but may lead to complicated coalition governments. Mixed systems try to combine the best of both but can be complex and still lead to coalition politics. The choice of system often reflects a country’s values about fairness, representation, and stability.

3. Comparing Electoral Systems

Looking at how different electoral systems affect political results is important for understanding their impact on representation, governance, stability, and inclusion. Here’s a simple breakdown of key points about electoral system design, political results, representation, stability, and minority inclusion.

Electoral System Design and Political Results

Electoral system design determines how votes turn into political power, affecting party systems, the number of parties, government formation, and representation.

1.      Effect on Party Systems:

  1. First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) usually leads to a two-party system because it pushes voters to back bigger parties, even if they prefer smaller ones. This happens because votes for losing candidates don’t count.
  2. Proportional Representation (PR) supports multi-party systems, allowing smaller parties to gain seats if they get enough votes. This can create coalition governments where multiple parties work together.
  3. Mixed systems like Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) combine local representation through FPTP and proportional representation through party lists, helping both local connections and smaller party representation.

2.      Effect on Political Competition:

  1. FPTP can decrease competition by creating safe seats for dominant parties, leading to less voter turnout and engagement.
  2. PR systems promote competition among smaller parties, leading to greater political diversity and more voter engagement, as voters feel their votes count.

Representation and Voter Satisfaction

Representation is about how well the system reflects the views and preferences of voters. The electoral system design affects how inclusive and representative the results are.

1.      Accuracy of Representation:

  1. FPTP can result in unfair outcomes. For instance, a party can win a district with fewer votes overall, leaving smaller parties underrepresented.
  2. PR systems better reflect votes in seats, allowing a party with 30% of the vote to get about 30% of the seats, leading to fairer representation of smaller parties.

2.      Voter Satisfaction:

  1. Voter satisfaction tends to be higher in PR systems because voters see a clear link between their votes and the seats their parties get, encouraging higher voter turnout and trust in the system.
  2. In FPTP systems, the wasted vote issue can lower satisfaction, especially for voters of smaller parties, as they may feel their votes don’t matter.

3.      Descriptive and Substantive Representation:

  1. Descriptive representation means elected officials reflect the demographics of the voters (like gender and ethnicity). PR systems often lead to better descriptive representation, especially for women and minorities.
  2. Substantive representation is about whether representatives support the interests of their voters. In systems where smaller parties can have a say, minority interests are often better represented, especially in PR systems.

Stability and Governability

Stability and governability refer to how well a political system can maintain effective government and avoid chaos.

1.      FPTP and Stability:

  1. FPTP usually leads to more stable governments because it often results in a majority party. This allows the government to pass laws easily.
  2. However, this can also mean that larger parties dominate, causing dissatisfaction among smaller parties or minorities.

2.      PR and Instability:

  1. PR systems can lead to fragmented parliaments with many parties, often needing coalition governments, which can cause instability if the parties disagree.
  2. On the positive side, PR allows more inclusive governance, including smaller parties in decision-making, but may sacrifice stability.

3.      Mixed Systems and Stability:

  1. Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) systems balance stability and proportionality, with the FPTP part ensuring local representatives while the PR part allows smaller parties to be included. This can lead to both accountability and fairness in governance.
  2. Parallel voting systems might reduce fairness but often lead to stable governments because the FPTP part can create a dominant party.

Inclusiveness and Minority Representation

A key role of an electoral system is to ensure representation for minority groups and that all parts of society have a voice.

1.      FPTP and Minority Representation:

  1. FPTP systems often do not represent minorities well, especially in diverse societies. They tend to favor larger parties, pushing smaller or marginalized groups out of political power.
  2. In countries with many minority groups, such as India or Canada, FPTP is criticized for not representing everyone fairly.

2.      PR and Minority Representation:

  1. PR systems are better at representing minorities as they allow a wide range of political views to be included. Smaller parties or ethnic groups can win seats based on their vote share.
  2. This is especially important in diverse or multi-ethnic societies (like Israel, Belgium, or South Africa), where minority parties can have a say in government.
  3. Additionally, PR can support historically marginalized groups, such as women or indigenous populations, by ensuring they gain representation.

3.      Mixed Systems and Minority Representation:

  1. Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) systems can improve minority representation by combining local interests with proportionality. While the FPTP part might still disadvantage some minorities, the PR part helps balance this.
  2. For example, in Germany, the MMP system has allowed for regional diversity and enabled smaller, minority parties to gain seats.

Conclusion

The design of an electoral system shapes political results, including party systems, representation quality, governance stability, and minority inclusion.

  • FPTP is simple and stable but often leads to unfair representation and limited support for minorities.
  • Proportional Representation ensures that smaller parties and minorities are included but can create more fragmented parliaments and unstable governments.
  • Mixed Systems aim to combine the best aspects of both majoritarian and proportional systems, providing a balance of local representation, fairness, and effective governance.

Ultimately, the choice of an electoral system depends on a country’s political context, priorities (like stability or inclusivity), and values regarding democracy.

4. Current Issues in Voting Systems

Changes and New Ideas in Voting

Voting reforms are meant to fix problems in current systems. Many countries are changing their voting methods to make them better for representation, fairness, and voter satisfaction. Here are some main changes and ideas:

1.      Ranked-Choice Voting (RCV):

  1. RCV lets voters rank candidates by preference, which helps avoid wasting votes.
  2. If no candidate gets a majority, the candidate with the fewest votes is removed and their votes are given to the remaining candidates based on voter preferences until one has a majority.
  3. Example: Maine in the U.S. uses RCV for federal elections to ensure winners have wider support.
  4. Benefit: It can help reduce division by encouraging candidates to appeal to more voters.

2.      Compulsory Voting:

  1. In countries like Australia, voting is mandatory, and people can face penalties if they do not vote.
  2. Impact: This leads to higher voter turnout and less chance of bias from low participation, but some critics say it can result in uneducated voting.

3.      Quotas for Underrepresented Groups:

  1. Many countries set quotas (for gender, ethnicity, etc.) to ensure that underrepresented communities have a voice in government.
  2. Example: Rwanda has the highest percentage of women in parliament due to these quotas.

4.      Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) and Parallel Systems:

  1. These systems are being updated as countries look for ways to balance local representation with fair overall representation.

5.      Voting Systems for Indigenous and Minority Groups:

  1. Some countries offer reserved seats or special voting methods to make sure indigenous and minority groups are represented.

Technology’s Impact on Elections

New technology is changing how elections happen, with both good and bad effects.

1.      Electronic Voting:

  1. E-voting systems are becoming more common to make voting easier. Countries like Estonia have started online voting for local and national elections.
  2. Pros: E-voting can simplify the process, increase participation, and help those with disabilities or in remote areas.
  3. Challenges: There are major concerns about security, hacking, and protecting voter privacy.

2.      Digital Campaigning:

  1. Technology has changed political campaigns. Social media and data analytics allow campaigns to target specific groups of voters.
  2. Challenges: There’s a rise in misinformation and fake news, which can threaten democratic processes and manipulate voter opinions.

3.      Blockchain for Election Transparency:

  1. Blockchain could help secure elections and make them more transparent. It is a secure way of recording votes.
  2. Countries like Switzerland and some U.S. regions are trying blockchain voting to increase trust and reduce fraud.

4.      AI and Election Integrity:

  1. AI can help improve voter turnout, make counting votes more accurate, and spot fraud.
  2. Challenges: Using AI raises concerns about privacy and the risk of manipulating elections.

Fighting Gerrymandering and Election Fraud

1.      Gerrymandering:

  1. Gerrymandering happens when electoral districts are drawn to favor a certain political group, leading to unfair representation.
  2. Solutions:
    • Independent Redistricting Commissions: Many places, including parts of the U.S. and Canada, have created independent groups to draw district lines fairly.
    • Algorithmic Redistricting: Computers can help draw fairer districts by reducing partisan bias.
    • Public Participation: Some countries involve the public in the redistricting process.

2.      Election Fraud:

  1. This includes actions like voter suppression and vote buying.
  2. Solutions:
    • Voter ID Laws: Some countries require IDs to reduce fraud, but this can also make it harder for some voters to participate.
    • Election Monitoring: Many countries use strong monitoring and international observers to ensure fairness.
    • Blockchain: Again, this technology can help improve transparency and security, reducing fraud chances.

International Organizations in Election Monitoring

International organizations and NGOs help ensure that elections are free, fair, and transparent.

1.      United Nations:

  1. The UN provides help to countries for organizing elections to ensure they are legitimate and credible.
  2. UNESCO and others focus on fair media and voter education, especially in conflict areas.

2.      European Union (EU):

  1. The EU sends teams to observe elections in nearby countries and potential new members, checking for fairness and helping to build democratic practices.

3.      Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE):

  1. The OSCE monitors elections in many regions, focusing on fairness, freedom of speech, and the right to assemble.

4.      Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):

  1. Groups like The Carter Center and International IDEA monitor elections, push for reforms, and offer support.
  2. Local NGOs are also important in ensuring elections are fair and transparent.

5. Voting Systems in Action

Examples of Voting Systems in Different Countries

1.      United Kingdom (FPTP):

  1. The UK uses First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) for elections. This system can create strong majority governments but often leaves smaller parties underrepresented. In the 2019 election, the Conservative Party won a majority with only about 43% of the votes, showing how the system can favor one party.

2.      Germany (MMP):

  1. Germany uses a Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP) system that combines local representation with overall fairness. This system allows smaller parties to be heard while keeping local representation. Coalition governments are common but stable.

3.      India (FPTP):

  1. India also uses FPTP, which has led to the growth of regional parties. While it provides clear winners, it can create regional imbalances in representation.

4.      Israel (PR):

  1. Israel uses Proportional Representation, leading to a multi-party system and frequent coalition governments. This allows for better representation of smaller parties but can cause instability.

Lessons from Voting Reforms

  1. Proportional Representation often gives better representation but can lead to unstable coalition governments.
  2. Ranked-Choice Voting increases voter satisfaction by ensuring winners have broader support.
  3. Gerrymandering reforms have helped make elections fairer.
  4. Voting technology advancements like e-voting provide efficiency but come with security and privacy challenges.

Analysis of Recent Elections and Results

1.      U.S. Presidential Election (2020):

  1. The 2020 election showed the importance of voting rights and technology (like mail-in ballots). It also highlighted issues like voter suppression and misinformation.
  2. The Electoral College played a significant role, with Joe Biden winning the popular vote but the electoral system affecting the final results.

2.      Brexit Referendum (2016):

  1. The Brexit vote illustrated how direct democracy (like referendums) can be influenced by misinformation and unclear questions.

Conclusion

Voting systems are always changing as countries adapt to new technology and social needs. Reforms like Ranked-Choice Voting, Mixed-Member Proportional systems, and tech advancements hold promise for better elections, but issues of representation, voter participation, and fairness are still important challenges.

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