In this post, notes of “Unit 5: Culture and Society in 19th century’s Europe: 1789-1850s” from “DSC- 3: History of Modern Europe – I” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
Neo-Classical Art (c. 1750–1830)
What It Is and Key Features:
Neo-Classical art developed as a response to the elaborate styles of Baroque and Rococo art. It was heavily inspired by ancient Greek and Roman art, especially after the discoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 1700s. This style focused on simplicity, balance, and proportion, with characteristics such as:
- Straight lines and little decoration
- Idealized human figures based on classical models
- Themes of virtue, heroism, and reason, reflecting Enlightenment ideas
- Historical and mythological subjects that often taught moral lessons
- Use of light and shadow (chiaroscuro) but less dramatic than Baroque art
Notable Artists:
Jacques-Louis David: The leading Neo-Classical artist, known for history paintings like The Death of Socrates (1787) and Napoleon Crossing the Alps (1801). His art highlighted heroism and patriotism, supporting the French Revolution and Napoleon’s rule.
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres: A student of David, Ingres blended Neo-Classical styles with a smoother technique. His artwork, like La Grande Odalisque (1814), is recognized for its clean lines.
Influence on Architecture and Sculpture:
Neo-Classical architecture drew from ancient Greek and Roman designs, focusing on balance and proportion. Key features included:
- Columns (like those in the Pantheon in Paris)
- Domes
- Triumphal arches (inspired by Roman architecture) Sculptures from this period also reflected classical themes, often showing idealized human forms.
Connection to Revolution and Academic Art:
- Neo-Classical art supported ideas of the French Revolution, such as liberty and sacrifice. David’s The Death of Marat (1793) was used to justify the revolutionaries’ actions.
- This movement influenced academic art, setting standards in European art schools for much of the 19th century.
Romanticism (c. 1800–1850)
Main Ideas and Themes:
Romanticism was a cultural movement that reacted against the logic and order of Neo-Classicism, focusing instead on emotion, nature, and individual experiences. Key themes included:
- Emotion: Romantic art expressed strong feelings, including sadness and awe.
- Nature: Artists depicted nature as wild and a source of personal insight.
- Nationalism: Romanticism celebrated national identity, often highlighting folk traditions and landscapes.
- Individualism: The movement valued personal experiences and emotions.
Key Artists and Writers:
Eugène Delacroix: A major French Romantic artist known for his vibrant colors and emotional intensity in works like Liberty Leading the People (1830).
William Blake: An English artist and poet whose works, such as Songs of Innocence and Experience, explored mystical and spiritual themes.
Important Literary Works:
- Goethe’s Faust (1808): This play examines human desires and struggles, reflecting the Romantic focus on individual emotion.
- Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818): A key Romantic novel that addresses the dangers of unchecked ambition and the importance of nature.
Romanticism in Music:
- Beethoven: His music, especially the Ninth Symphony (1824), marked a shift to Romantic ideals, emphasizing emotion and personal expression.
- Chopin: Known for his emotional piano pieces, like his Nocturnes, which reflect deep feelings and a connection to nature.
Realism in Art and Literature (c. 1840s–1880s)
What It Is and Key Principles:
Realism emerged as a response to both Romanticism and Neo-Classicism. Realist artists and writers aimed to show life as it truly is, focusing on ordinary people and their daily lives. Key principles included:
- Everyday life: Realists depicted common experiences, often highlighting the working class and social struggles.
- Objectivity: They aimed for an honest portrayal of reality.
- Social critique: Many works addressed social issues like poverty and inequality.
Notable Painters:
Gustave Courbet: A leading Realist, Courbet’s paintings, like The Stone Breakers (1849), showed everyday people in a straightforward way, challenging traditional art norms.
Jean-François Millet: Known for his rural scenes, Millet’s works like The Gleaners (1857) celebrated the dignity of labor.
Literary Realism:
- Honoré de Balzac: His series La Comédie Humaine (1834–1850) offered a detailed look at French society and its characters.
- Charles Dickens: A key figure in English realism, Dickens addressed social issues in novels like Oliver Twist (1837–1839) and Hard Times (1854).
Focus on Society and Everyday Life:
Realism in both art and literature highlighted the lives of ordinary people, often revealing harsh social conditions. It aimed to raise awareness of the struggles faced by the working class, paving the way for later movements like Impressionism and modernism.
These movements—Neo-Classicism, Romanticism, and Realism—significantly influenced European culture and society in the 18th and 19th centuries, shaping how people viewed themselves and their world.
The City During Industrialization (c. 1750–1850)
Urban Growth and Changes in Population
Rise of Industrial Cities: London, Paris, Berlin
- London: London was one of the first cities to feel the impact of the Industrial Revolution, growing quickly in size and population in the 19th century. By the mid-1800s, it became the largest city in the world, with millions of residents. This growth was fueled by new jobs created by industries, attracting people from rural areas and other countries. London also thrived as a center for global trade.
- Paris: Paris changed a lot due to industrialization, especially after the French Revolution. By the 19th century, it became both a cultural and industrial center. Under Napoleon III, city planner Baron Haussmann modernized Paris in the 1850s, creating wide streets, public squares, and parks to improve living conditions and manage potential unrest.
- Berlin: In the 19th century, Berlin evolved into a modern city, especially after the German Empire was formed in 1871. Industrialization led to rapid growth, and Berlin became a key political and industrial hub in Europe. The city expanded with new infrastructure like railways and public buildings.
Migration Trends and City Populations
- The Industrial Revolution caused many people to leave rural areas for cities in search of jobs, a process called rural-to-urban migration. This led to rapid city growth as industries like textiles and coal mining boomed.
- International migration also increased, with many people from countries like Ireland, Italy, and Eastern Europe moving to cities like London, Paris, and Berlin for better opportunities. Immigrants often formed their own communities, adding to the cities’ cultural diversity.
- Industrial cities often had a young, working-class population. Families lived in crowded neighborhoods, facing poor living conditions with inadequate sanitation, housing, and healthcare.
Problems from Rapid City Growth: Overcrowding and Sanitation
- Overcrowding: The large number of rural migrants and poor urban planning led to overcrowding. Many working-class families lived in cramped, unsanitary conditions, often in slums. This situation caused social issues and health risks.
- Sanitation: A major challenge was the lack of proper sanitation. Many cities had inadequate waste disposal systems, leading to human waste in open gutters and the spread of diseases like cholera. Poor sanitation could not keep up with the growing population’s needs.
Urban Infrastructure
Building Public Amenities: Roads, Water, Sewage
- As cities expanded, the need for better infrastructure grew. New roads were built to handle increased traffic from people and goods.
- Water supply: Access to clean drinking water became crucial. Many cities lacked centralized water systems, forcing residents to rely on wells or public fountains. Developing public water systems, like reservoirs and aqueducts, improved public health.
- Sewage: Early industrial cities struggled with sewage management. Many relied on open drains, which spread disease. Eventually, sewage systems, like the one created in London by Joseph Bazalgette in the mid-19th century, helped manage waste and reduce diseases.
Transportation Improvements: Railways, Trams, and Omnibuses
- Railways: The railway system was a key technological advancement of the 19th century, making it easier to transport raw materials to factories and goods to markets. Railways also changed city life by allowing faster travel for people and connecting regional economies.
- Trams and Omnibuses: Street-level trams and omnibuses (horse-drawn carriages) made it easier for people to get around cities. These forms of public transport reduced the need to walk and allowed workers to live farther from their jobs.
Public Buildings and Spaces: Parks, Museums, Hospitals
- As cities grew, the need for public spaces became clear. Urban planners created parks to provide green areas for relaxation away from crowded streets. Parks like Hyde Park in London and Bois de Boulogne in Paris were established in the 19th century.
- Museums and cultural institutions also grew, serving as symbols of urban sophistication and education. Many cities built museums and libraries that were open to the public, enhancing cultural life.
- Hospitals and healthcare facilities became vital as urban populations faced new health challenges. A focus on sanitary reform led to the construction of hospitals aimed at controlling diseases and improving living standards. Better sanitation and medical advances increased life expectancy and public health.
In summary, the age of industrialization brought significant changes to city life. Cities expanded rapidly, leading to demographic shifts and challenges like overcrowding and poor sanitation. Over time, planners and governments responded with improvements in infrastructure, transportation, and public health, laying the groundwork for modern urban living.
Social Life in Industrial Cities
New Social Classes: Middle Class and Working Class
The industrial revolution changed city life and created new social classes:
- Middle Class: This group, known as the bourgeoisie, included factory owners, business people, professionals like doctors and engineers, and skilled workers. They were generally wealthier than the working class and enjoyed better living conditions, education, and social opportunities. Middle-class families valued hard work, respectability, and education, and they started to influence politics and culture by supporting the arts and reforms.
- Industrial Working Class: Known as the proletariat, this class consisted of people working in factories and mines under tough conditions. They earned low wages and lived in crowded and unhealthy environments. Many worked long hours, and children were often employed to help their families. Despite these challenges, workers began to unite for better pay, working conditions, and political rights.
Leisure and Entertainment
In growing industrial cities, leisure activities became important, especially for the middle and working classes:
- Theater: Theaters became popular, showcasing new plays and performances. Both the middle and working classes attended shows, which included melodramas, comedies, and musicals, helping to shape urban culture.
- Public Events and Sports: Organized sports and public events, like horse races and boxing matches, became common. The working class often watched these events, while the middle class enjoyed sports like tennis and cricket.
- Music and Dance Halls: Music was a key form of entertainment, with dance halls and concerts providing places to socialize and relax after work. Music halls featured live performances, comedy, and variety shows.
Coffee Houses, Salons, and Public Libraries
- Coffee Houses: These were social hubs where people gathered to discuss ideas, politics, and current events. They played a crucial role in social life and were often where political movements began.
- Salons: Typically hosted by wealthy women, salons were private gatherings for discussions about culture and philosophy. They were important for the development of intellectual movements, especially in cities like Paris.
- Public Libraries: As literacy increased, public libraries became vital for education and cultural exchange. They provided access to books and newspapers, promoting learning across all social classes.
Urban Culture and Identity
Impact of Industrialization on Culture
Industrialization greatly affected city culture, leading to new social interactions and creative expressions:
- The economic growth from industrialization created new audiences for the arts, particularly among the middle class, who consumed literature, art, and theater.
- Urbanization brought together diverse populations, making cities centers for cultural exchange and blending of artistic styles.
- New technologies like photography and printing made art and literature more accessible to a broad audience.
Art, Literature, and Theater
- Art: Artists often depicted urban landscapes, highlighting both the beauty and the social issues of industrial life. Realist and Impressionist artists captured the changing city environment.
- Literature: Writers like Charles Dickens focused on the struggles of the urban poor, critiquing industrial society’s injustices. Other authors used their work to comment on the effects of industrialization.
- Theater: The theater reflected urban life and romantic ideals, exploring themes of individual triumph and social conflict. The growing population created a demand for diverse entertainment.
Cities as Symbols of Modernity
Industrial cities represented modernity and progress, showcasing the achievements of industrialization. However, this view was complicated:
- On one hand, cities symbolized technological progress and opportunities for success through hard work. Factories and railways represented the strength of modern industry.
- On the other hand, issues like overcrowding and pollution highlighted the negative effects of progress. The stark contrast between the rich and the poor became a significant concern in art and literature.
- Cities also shaped individual identity, offering new chances for social mobility while creating feelings of anonymity and alienation. The fast-paced urban life contributed to a sense of being lost in the crowd, a theme explored in literature and modern art.
In summary, the social and cultural life in industrial cities was deeply influenced by the changes brought about by industrialization. New social classes emerged, leisure activities thrived, and cities became symbols of modern life, reflecting both the opportunities and challenges of progress. As cities evolved, they turned into vibrant centers for cultural exchange, intellectual discussions, and artistic expression.