In this post, notes of “Unit 5: Tribes and Politics” from “DSC 15: Political Process in India” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.

1. Introduction to Tribes and Politics

What Are Tribes in India?

Tribes in India are groups of people who have traditionally lived in isolated areas like hills or forests. They are often called “Adivasis” or “Scheduled Tribes,” which is a term used in the Indian Constitution. The Constitution recognizes them as unique groups with their own cultures and traditions, which are different from the main society.

History:

• Tribes in India have a long history and are considered the original people of the region. They have a close relationship with nature and usually practice farming for their needs. Their way of life changed when the British took control of India, introducing new systems that affected their economies and social structures.
• British rule brought laws that harmed tribes, such as forest laws and forced labor, leading to their exclusion from the main political and economic life.

Tribes’ Role in Society and Politics

Social Role:

• Tribes have their own social systems and live in strong communities. They have a shared identity and follow customs and rituals. Their way of living was simple and focused on community. However, modern changes have affected their lifestyles.

Political Role:

• Before Independence: Tribes were important in fighting against British rule. Leaders like Birsa Munda and Rani Durgavati became symbols of this resistance. Major uprisings like the Munda Rebellion and Santhal Rebellion were led by tribes against British control and landlords.
• After Independence: After 1947, the Indian government tried to include tribes in the political system. Policies were made to protect their land rights and help them develop. However, issues like displacement from their land due to development projects and lack of political representation still affect many tribes.

Tribal Politics Today:

• Tribes have a significant role in Indian politics, especially where they make up a large part of the population, like in Central India, North East India, and parts of Jharkhand and Rajasthan. New tribal leaders and political groups have formed, such as the Bodo People’s Front in Assam and the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha in Jharkhand.

Key Ideas About Tribal Politics

Several theories explain how tribal communities in India engage in politics:

1. Assimilation vs. Autonomy:
   • This idea looks at how tribes balance fitting into the wider society while wanting to keep their unique cultures and rights.

2. Ethno-Political Perspective:
   • This view examines how tribes use their identity to gain political power, often opposing outside forces like the government.

3. Developmentalist Perspective:
   • This perspective emphasizes the government’s role in developing tribal areas, while also criticizing how such development can harm tribes.

4. Marxist Perspective:
   • From this viewpoint, tribal politics reflects the struggles against exploitation of their lands and resources.

5. Class Struggle and Tribal Politics:
   • This idea states that tribal politics is shaped by their fight against exploitation, focusing on land rights and resource distribution.

6. Tribalism and State Nationalism:
   • This perspective discusses how tribal identity challenges the idea of a single, modern nation, as tribes may have different systems that conflict with the main society.

7. Indigenous Rights and International Perspectives:
   • On a global level, there is a growing focus on tribal communities as indigenous peoples with rights recognized by international agreements, such as the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).

2. Policies and Challenges

Overview of Policies for Tribes in India

Since India became independent, many policies have been created to help tribal communities. These policies mainly focus on their well-being, land protection, and political representation. Here are the main policies affecting tribes:

1. The Constitution of India and Tribal Rights:
   • Scheduled Tribes (STs): The Constitution recognizes tribes as Scheduled Tribes (STs) and provides special protections. It mentions tribes in Article 342, which lists their rights.
   • Article 15(4): Allows the government to make special provisions to help tribes in education and jobs.
   • Article 46: Tells the government to support the welfare of Scheduled Tribes and protect them from exploitation.

2. Fifth and Sixth Schedules:
   • The Fifth Schedule (Article 244) relates to Tribal Areas in certain states (like Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand) and gives the Governor the power to make laws for tribal welfare and land protection.
   • The Sixth Schedule (Article 244A) applies to tribal areas in the Northeast (like Assam and Meghalaya) and allows the creation of Autonomous District Councils for tribes to manage their own affairs and protect their culture.

3. The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA):
   • This law helps tribes have more control over local governance, allowing them to manage their resources and development.

4. The Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA):
   • This important law secures the rights of tribal communities and traditional forest dwellers over forest land and resources. It recognizes their rights to manage and use forest resources.

5. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) and Special Component Plan (SCP):
   • These are financial plans to ensure that tribal communities benefit from government programs. The TSP sets aside part of the budget for tribal welfare.

6. National Policy on Tribals (2006):
   • This policy aims to improve the lives of tribes while respecting their culture, focusing on education, healthcare, jobs, and protecting tribal culture.

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Key Challenges Faced by Tribal Communities

Despite these policies, tribal communities still face many problems that affect their growth and political power:

1. Land Loss:
   • Tribes often lose their ancestral lands due to big projects like mining and urban development, which affects their livelihoods and culture.
   • Land loss also happens when non-tribal people take tribal lands illegally or by ignoring laws meant to protect them.

2. Poverty and Economic Struggles:
   • Tribes are usually among the poorest in India. Their traditional farming and crafts don’t match modern economic needs, and lack of infrastructure in their areas makes things worse.

3. Limited Education and Healthcare:
   • Education is poor in tribal areas, with low literacy rates and few schools.
   • Healthcare services are also lacking, leading to high rates of illness and death among tribal people.

4. Cultural Loss:
   • Modernization has led to the loss of tribal cultures and traditions. Tribes often have to fit into mainstream cultures, which can erase their unique identities.

5. Exploitation and Discrimination:
   • Tribes face exploitation and discrimination in jobs and services. They are also at risk of human trafficking due to their vulnerable situation.

6. Political Exclusion:
   • Even with reserved seats in government, tribes are often not well represented. Political leaders sometimes use tribal votes without addressing their real needs.

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Government Initiatives and Programs for Tribal Welfare

The Indian government has started several programs to help tribal communities:

1. Tribal Welfare Department:
   • Most states have a Tribal Welfare Department that runs programs for education, healthcare, and cultural preservation.

2. Tribal Development Programs:
   • Various schemes aim to improve living conditions for tribes by providing housing, water, electricity, and roads.

3. Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP):
   • This project focuses on overall development in tribal areas, including poverty reduction and healthcare.

4. Tribal Co-operative Marketing Development Federation (TRIFED):
   • TRIFED helps market tribal products, ensuring fair prices for their goods.

5. National Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSTFDC):
   • This organization gives financial help to tribal businesses and entrepreneurs.

6. Skill Development and Livelihood Programs:
   • Programs like the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) provide training to help tribes improve their job skills.

7. Education and Scholarship Schemes:
   • Government schemes support higher education for tribal students with hostels, free books, and scholarships.

8. Legal Protection Programs:
   • Legal aid is available to protect tribal land rights under laws like the Forest Rights Act, 2006.

9. ST (Protection of Rights) Act, 2006:
   • This law aims to prevent atrocities against Scheduled Tribes and sets up special courts for related crimes.

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Conclusion

While there are many policies and programs to improve the lives of tribes in India, several challenges still exist. Balancing economic growth and cultural preservation is tough for tribal communities. For real progress, government efforts and tribal self-determination must work together to support tribes while respecting their way of life.

3. Fifth and Sixth Schedules

Background and Goals of the Fifth and Sixth Schedules

The Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Indian Constitution are made to protect and provide special rights for Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Scheduled Areas in India. They were created to help tribal communities keep their rights in their original lands and to protect them from being taken advantage of, losing their land, or being pushed out by non-tribal people. The goal is to support tribal self-rule, culture, and natural resources.

• The Fifth Schedule deals with Scheduled Areas in Central and Northern India, where many tribal people live, while the Sixth Schedule is for tribal areas in the Northeastern states like Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. These areas have special ways of governing to keep tribal self-rule and protect their land and resources.

The main goals of both Schedules are:

• Protect tribal land and resources.
• Allow self-governance.
• Stop exploitation and discrimination.
• Keep tribal culture and traditions.

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Main Points of the Fifth Schedule

The Fifth Schedule focuses on areas with many tribal people. It gives the President of India the power to declare an area as a Scheduled Area and sets rules for the protection and support of tribes in these areas.

1. Scheduled Areas (Article 244):
   • The President can declare any place with many tribal people as a Scheduled Area. Most of these areas are in Central India, Eastern India, and parts of Southern India (like Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Gujarat).
   • These areas are marked based on the social and cultural needs of the tribes living there.

2. Governor’s Power (Article 244(1)):
   • The Governor of each state with Scheduled Areas has special powers over these areas. For example, the Governor can:
     • Change laws that affect tribal areas.
     • Manage laws about land rights, tribal welfare, and tribal self-rule.

3. Tribal Advisory Council (Article 244(2)):
   • Each state with Scheduled Areas must have a Tribal Advisory Council. This council gives advice on issues like tribal welfare and land rights.
   • The council mainly consists of tribal members to ensure their voices are heard.

4. Land Protection:
   • The Fifth Schedule has rules to stop land alienation in Scheduled Areas, meaning tribal lands cannot be sold to non-tribal people without the Governor’s or Tribal Advisory Council’s approval.
   • This is to protect tribal communities from losing their land.

5. Prohibition of Certain Acts:
   • The Governor can control or stop the sale of tribal land to non-tribals in Scheduled Areas to prevent exploitation.

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Main Points of the Sixth Schedule

The Sixth Schedule is for the tribal areas of Northeast India and allows them more freedom and self-governance compared to the Fifth Schedule. It applies to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. The main features include:

1. Autonomous District Councils (ADC):
   • The Sixth Schedule allows for the creation of Autonomous District Councils (ADC) in tribal areas. These councils can manage themselves and make decisions about local matters.
   • The ADCs can control:
     • Land and resources: They can manage land ownership and resources.
     • Cultural practices: Tribes can manage their cultural traditions, and the councils can create laws about them.
     • Welfare and development: The councils can start local health and education programs.

2. Land Rights:
   • Like the Fifth Schedule, the Sixth Schedule protects tribal land and stops its sale to non-tribals to keep it within the tribal community.
   • ADCs can make laws about land use and management.

3. Local Laws:
   • The District Councils can create laws about land revenue, cultural practices, and tribal customs, ensuring the rights of tribes are protected.

4. Regional Councils:
   • The Governor can also create regional councils for specific areas to improve administration in tribal regions.

5. Protection from Outsiders:
   • The Sixth Schedule protects tribes from outside influences, allowing them to manage their resources and governance.

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Impact of the Fifth and Sixth Schedules on Tribal Communities

Both Schedules have greatly affected tribal communities, but their success varies by region.

1. Positive Effects:
   • Self-Governance: They allow tribes to control their land and resources through local bodies like Tribal Advisory Councils and Autonomous District Councils. This helps keep tribal culture and traditional governance.
   • Legal Protection: Rules against land alienation have helped protect tribal lands from being taken over, especially in the Northeast and mainland India.
   • Cultural Preservation: The ability to manage tribal customs has helped keep cultural identities alive.

2. Challenges:
   • Limited Powers: While the Autonomous District Councils offer some self-rule, state oversight often limits their power. Outside influences can weaken these councils.
   • Land Issues: Despite protective laws, land alienation is still a major problem. Activities like mining and development projects often displace tribes, especially in states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha. Protective laws can be ignored or misused.
   • Governance Problems: The Autonomous District Councils may lack the resources to work effectively. Issues like political instability and corruption can hinder governance and basic service delivery.

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Examples of Implementation and Challenges

1. Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh (Fifth Schedule):
   • These states have many tribal people, but land alienation is still a big issue. The rules meant to prevent land sales to non-tribals often fail due to political interference and poor enforcement. Tribes are often displaced for mining and industrial projects, losing their lands despite legal protections.
   • Tribal movements in these areas, like the Munda Rebellion and the Santhal Rebellion, show the need for better enforcement of protective measures.

2. Northeast India (Sixth Schedule):
   • In Assam, Meghalaya, and Tripura, Autonomous District Councils have helped preserve tribal culture and land. However, issues like ethnic conflict and political instability can reduce their effectiveness. Movements like the Bodo and Karbi Anglong movements highlight the complex relationship between tribal self-rule and state tensions.

3. Mizoram (Sixth Schedule):
   • Mizoram is a success story where the Mizoram Autonomous District Council has effectively managed tribal affairs, ensuring local governance and land rights protection. However, there are still issues with land encroachment by non-tribals and political pressures.

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Conclusion

The Fifth and Sixth Schedules are important parts of the Constitution aimed at protecting tribal communities from exploitation and ensuring their self-governance and land rights. However, their implementation has been uneven, and challenges like land loss, economic exploitation, political interference, and insufficient enforcement still affect their effectiveness.

While these Schedules provide a legal framework for tribal welfare, much work remains to ensure real empowerment and economic growth for tribal communities across India.

4. Forest Rights Act

Background and Goals of the Forest Rights Act

The Forest Rights Act (FRA), also called the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, was created to fix past wrongs faced by tribal and forest communities in India due to strict forest rules. Before this act, many tribal people were pushed aside, unable to access their traditional forest lands, and often forced to leave their homes because of conservation laws.

Background:

• During British rule, the government took control of many forests, pushing tribal people off their lands. The Indian Forest Act of 1927 and later laws focused on government control, leading to the displacement of tribal communities who relied on these forests for their daily needs.
• After independence, India’s forest policies continued to see forest dwellers as encroachers, often evicting them without recognizing their rights to land and resources.
• Movements like the Chipko Movement in the 1970s and other tribal protests in the 1980s and 1990s highlighted the struggles of forest communities and their rightful claims to forest resources, paving the way for the Forest Rights Act.

Goals of the Forest Rights Act:

1. Recognizing Forest Rights: The main goal of the FRA is to acknowledge and grant the forest rights of tribal communities and other traditional forest dwellers who have relied on the forests for generations.
2. Empowering Communities: The FRA aims to give these communities legal rights to their land, resources, and management of forests.
3. Sustainable Forest Management: The Act seeks to balance the conservation of forests with the rights of those who depend on them and emphasizes community-led forest management.
4. Correcting Past Injustices: It addresses the past loss of tribal land and ensures that the rights of Scheduled Tribes (STs) and other traditional forest dwellers are legally recognized.

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Important Parts of the Forest Rights Act

1. Individual Forest Rights (IFR):
   • The Act recognizes the rights of tribal and forest-dwelling families over forest land they have used for living or work for many years, even if they don’t have formal titles.
   • This includes rights to grow crops, graze animals, and collect items like honey and medicinal plants.
   • Tribal families can own up to 4 hectares of forest land, following certain environmental rules.

2. Community Forest Rights (CFR):
   • The Act recognizes the rights of tribal and forest communities to manage and protect shared forest resources, such as grazing lands, water bodies, and sacred areas.
   • Communities can use their traditional knowledge to protect these resources.

3. Forest Resources and Minor Forest Produce:
   • The FRA guarantees access to collect and sell minor forest products (MFP) like fruits, nuts, and firewood, providing income opportunities for communities.

4. Conservation and Management:
   • The Act encourages local communities to participate in sustainable forest management and to work with forest departments to protect and manage forests.
   • It also allows for the establishment of Critical Wildlife Habitats, where communities can help with biodiversity conservation.

5. Rights in Protected Areas:
   • The FRA supports the rights of forest-dwelling communities in protected areas (like wildlife sanctuaries) and includes them in decisions about conservation activities.

6. Grievance Redressal Mechanism:
   • The Act sets up a two-level system for addressing issues related to the recognition and enforcement of forest rights at both village and district levels.

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Effects of the Forest Rights Act on Tribal Communities

The Forest Rights Act has significantly impacted tribal and forest communities, although the results vary by region.

1. Empowerment and Legal Recognition:
   • The FRA has helped communities gain legal titles to land they have traditionally used, reducing the risk of eviction.
   • For the first time, tribal people have legal rights to essential resources for their survival, like firewood and grazing grounds.

2. Economic Benefits:
   • Owning forest land has given tribal communities better control over their livelihoods and improved access to resources.
   • Selling minor forest products has created additional income sources, particularly benefiting women.

3. Sustainable Forest Management:
   • The FRA encourages community-led forest management, reviving traditional conservation practices and involving communities in protecting forests.

4. Access to Justice:
   • The Act provides legal options for tribal communities if their rights are violated, helping to uphold their rights.

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Challenges in Implementation and Enforcement

Despite the FRA’s potential, there are several challenges in making it work:

1. Slow Recognition of Rights:
   • Claims for forest rights often face delays due to bureaucratic issues and a lack of awareness among tribal communities about the FRA process.
   • Many claims have been rejected due to insufficient documentation.

2. Resistance from Forest Departments:
   • Some forest departments resist implementing the FRA, particularly regarding land rights in protected areas, creating tensions with tribal communities.
   • Officials sometimes find loopholes in the Act to assert that conservation laws take precedence.

3. Conflict with Conservation Policies:
   • Recognizing rights in protected areas can clash with conservation goals, as forest-dwelling communities often live in biodiversity-rich areas.

4. Limited Awareness and Capacity:
   • Many tribal communities lack knowledge about the FRA and its provisions. Local implementation bodies often need more training and resources to manage rights and forest resources.

5. Exclusion of Some Forest Dwellers:
   • Many non-Scheduled Tribes (NSTs) and other traditional forest dwellers have been left out of the Act, even though they rely on forest resources.

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Examples of Successes and Failures

1. Success – Gujarat (Dangs District):
   • In Dangs District of Gujarat, the FRA has been successfully implemented, with tribal communities gaining titles to forest land and actively managing their resources. This success is due to strong community involvement and NGO support.

2. Failure – Odisha (Kandhamal District):
   • In Kandhamal District of Odisha, implementation has been slow, with many tribal people not receiving recognition for their rights. Resistance from forest departments and political issues have hindered progress.

3. Success – Kerala (Wayanad District):
   • In Wayanad, Kerala, the FRA has successfully recognized forest rights, with many communities receiving land titles and effectively managing sacred groves and natural resources.

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Conclusion

The Forest Rights Act has been crucial in recognizing the rights of forest-dwelling communities and addressing historical wrongs. While it has empowered many tribal communities, challenges remain in how it is implemented and enforced. Resistance from authorities, bureaucratic delays, and conflicts with conservation policies have slowed progress.

To make the FRA fully effective, there needs to be more awareness at the community level, better cooperation between state agencies and communities, and a political commitment to overcoming resistance from forest management bodies. Success stories from states like Gujarat and Kerala show the potential of the FRA when implemented well, but much more work is needed to ensure all tribal communities benefit from it.

5. Development and Displacement Issues

Effects of Development Projects on Tribal Communities

Tribal communities in India have depended on forests, land, and natural resources for their way of life. However, various development projects, like industrialization, mining, dam building, urbanization, and infrastructure improvements, have greatly affected them.

Although these projects are often considered necessary for national growth, they have displaced many tribal people, disrupting their lives and traditions.

1. Loss of Land and Livelihoods:
   • Many tribal people have lost their land because of development projects, which means they can no longer earn a living, especially in rural areas where they rely on farming and forest resources.
   • Without their ancestral lands, many tribes lack access to essential resources like water and firewood, which are crucial for their survival.

2. Cultural Breakdown:
   • Tribal communities have a strong connection to their land. When they are displaced, their customs, culture, and social structures often break down, leading to a loss of tribal identity.
   • Moving to new areas can force tribal people to adopt non-tribal values, causing confusion about their identity.

3. Increased Vulnerability:
   • After being displaced, many tribal families end up in resettlement colonies where they experience social exclusion, lack basic services, and face poverty. They often do not have access to education, healthcare, or jobs, making their situation worse.

4. Environmental Damage:
   • Development projects like mining and dam construction can lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of water sources that tribal communities rely on for survival.
   • Displacement from dam projects can also harm fishing communities, as they lose access to rivers and floodplains.

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Key Issues of Displacement and Rehabilitation

Displacement from development projects brings many problems for tribal communities, including:

1. Inadequate Compensation:
   • Many tribes do not receive enough compensation for their lost land and resources. Rehabilitation efforts often fail to restore their livelihoods and social standing.
   • Although some tribes receive compensation for losing land to large projects, they may not be offered new ways to earn a living, making them more vulnerable.

2. Loss of Identity:
   • Displaced tribal people often lose their identity when moved from their ancestral lands, where their culture has thrived for generations. Relocation to more urban areas can disconnect them from their traditional practices.

3. Poor Resettlement Conditions:
   • Resettlement areas usually lack basic facilities like housing, clean water, schools, and healthcare. They are often overcrowded and unsuitable for tribal families to sustain their livelihoods.
   • Many tribal families are moved to places that do not support their traditional lifestyles, like areas without forests or water sources.

4. Impact on Women and Vulnerable Groups:
   • Women, marginalized groups, and children are heavily affected by displacement. Women lose access to forest resources, which harms their food security and economic independence.
   • Children often face interruptions in their education because they may have to move far from schools.

5. Conflict and Resistance:
   • Displacement can lead to protests and resistance, especially in places where tribal communities fight against losing their land. Examples include the Narmada Bachao Andolan and protests in Bihar against mining projects.

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Government Policies and Programs for Rehabilitation

The Indian government has introduced various laws and policies to deal with displacement issues, but many have been criticized for being ineffective.

1. RFCTLARR Act (2013):
   • This law aims to ensure fair compensation and rehabilitation for those displaced by development projects, including tribal communities.
   • It requires consultation with affected communities before land is taken and promises to provide land of equal or greater value for resettlement.

2. Forest Rights Act (2006):
   • This act recognizes the land rights of tribal communities displaced by projects in forest areas and aims to provide new land rights and livelihood options.
   • It also supports the management of forest resources by local communities.

3. National Rehabilitation Policy:
   • This policy ensures that displaced communities receive proper rehabilitation, including land, jobs, and social support.
   • It also focuses on preserving the cultural identity of displaced people.

4. Special Schemes for Tribal Welfare:
   • Various programs under the Ministry of Tribal Affairs work to provide new job opportunities, vocational training, and education to displaced tribal people.
   • The government also aims for self-sufficiency through skill development and financial support.

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Role of Civil Society and NGOs in Addressing Displacement Issues

Civil society organizations and NGOs play an important role in supporting displaced tribal communities by:

1. Advocacy and Legal Help:
   • NGOs like Narmada Bachao Andolan and Jansahyog advocate for the rights and rehabilitation of those affected by development projects, offering legal assistance to communities.
   • They provide representation in court and help ensure fair compensation.

2. Awareness Campaigns:
   • NGOs raise awareness about land and forest rights in tribal areas, helping communities understand their rights under various laws.
   • They organize protests and campaigns to pressure governments and corporations involved in displacement.

3. Monitoring Rehabilitation:
   • NGOs track the implementation of government rehabilitation programs to ensure they are effective.
   • They also assist tribal communities with relocation and provide training for new job opportunities.

4. Restoring Livelihoods:
   • Many NGOs focus on rebuilding livelihoods through training, micro-financing, and helping create self-help groups.
   • They also work to restore social structures by helping communities build new networks in resettlement areas.

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Case Studies of Development-Induced Displacement

1. Narmada Dam:
   • The Sardar Sarovar Dam has displaced many tribal communities in the Narmada Valley, leading to widespread protests. Many families have not received proper compensation or relocation, resulting in ongoing struggles.

2. Koel Karo Dam (Jharkhand):
   • This project has displaced several tribal communities without adequate rehabilitation, leading to protests over compensation and integration issues.

3. Mining in Odisha (Kalinganagar):
   • The Kalinganagar mining project has displaced tribal communities, leaving them with insufficient compensation and severely harming their livelihoods and environment.

4. Posco Steel Plant (Odisha):
   • The construction of the Posco steel plant has led to the displacement of tribal communities, causing protests and loss of agricultural land and traditional ways of living.

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Conclusion

While development projects are important for economic growth, they often harm tribal communities by causing displacement, loss of livelihoods, and cultural destruction. The lack of adequate rehabilitation and support has worsened their situation. Even though the government has created policies to help, issues with implementation and resistance from tribal communities continue to hinder progress.

NGOs and civil society groups play a vital role in advocating for the rights of displaced communities and supporting their rehabilitation efforts. The case studies highlight the ongoing challenges faced by displaced tribal communities and emphasize the importance of ensuring that development does not violate human rights or harm the environment.