In this post, notes of “Unit 3: I.A. Richards: Principles of Literary Criticism (1926) Chapters 1 & 2″” from “DSC- 9: Literary Criticism” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
Chapter 1: The Confusion of Critical Theories
Introduction to the Confusion in Criticism
In this section, readers face the vast and often confusing range of critical theories that have developed over time. These theories, from formalism to postmodernism, often disagree with each other, each claiming to have its own truth or method. This wide variety and sometimes conflicting ideas can be both exciting and frustrating, making it hard for those looking for a simple approach to literary criticism.
A quote from Shakespeare’s Henry IV highlights this feeling of imbalance:
“O monstrous! but one halfpennyworth of bread to this intolerable deal of sack!”
This saying reflects the uneven relationship between the basic ideas of criticism (“bread”) and the many complex or conflicting theories (“sack”). The large number of critical ideas can feel too much when compared to the clarity of simpler approaches. It shows a wish for simpler times when literary criticism was more straightforward, while also recognizing the complicated discussions that modern scholarship requires.
Historical Background
To understand today’s confusion in critical theories, we need to look at their history. Starting with Aristotle’s Poetics, literary criticism was based on structured, classical ideas that focused on plot, character, and emotional impact. However, as new ideas and methods came along, these traditional views changed to include more diverse and complex theories.
In the 19th and 20th centuries, movements like Romanticism, Marxism, Feminism, Structuralism, and Psychoanalysis changed the field of literary criticism. Thinkers like Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and Roland Barthes introduced new ways to think about texts, looking at social, psychological, and structural aspects that affect how literature is created and understood.
The rise of postmodernism in the mid-20th century made things even more complicated. The focus on questioning meanings and the idea that truth depends on context led to a situation where different opinions clashed, creating what some call the “chaos” of modern critical theory—a field filled with different beliefs, methods, and many voices.
By looking at the historical background, we can see how literary criticism changed from clear ideas to the varied and often conflicting approaches we see today. Each new theory brought its own challenges and discussions, adding to the complexity of modern criticism.
Basic Questions
In this part, we explore the main questions in literary criticism. These are the questions that all critics, whether new or experienced, need to think about to understand why some art connects with people more than others. Some key questions in literary theory include:
- What is art?
Is art meant to show truth, beauty, or feelings, or does it just reflect society and culture? Critics argue about whether art is valuable for its beauty, its moral messages, or its social and political meanings. - What makes a piece of literature “great”?
How do we decide what is great? Is it the writer’s skill, the creativity of the work, or its lasting effect on society? This question is important when we look at the list of important literature, which often favors some works or authors over others, raising concerns about whose voices are heard and whose are ignored. - Why do some artistic experiences have a stronger impact than others?
This question looks at what makes literature emotionally and intellectually powerful. Is it the common themes, the depth of the characters, or the story’s unique structure? Understanding why some works stand out across time and cultures is a main goal of criticism.
Critics not only try to answer these questions but also examine the beliefs that affect how we judge art. Is value based on tradition, societal views, or personal taste? How do cultural, historical, and political factors shape our opinions? These are important questions in literary theory.
Important Figures
The history of literary criticism has been shaped by several key people who changed how we think about and evaluate literature. Some of the most important are:
- Aristotle: Seen as the starting point of Western literary theory, Aristotle’s Poetics set the stage for later discussions about tragedy, plot, and characters. His ideas about mimicking life and emotional clarity have greatly influenced the study of drama and storytelling.
- Longinus: Famous for his work On the Sublime, Longinus discussed “sublimity” in writing, an elevated quality that can move readers or audiences to a higher emotional or intellectual place. His focus on the power of language has impacted later aesthetic theories.
- Horace: In Ars Poetica, Horace stressed that literature should entertain and teach. His ideas about style and balance between enjoyment and moral lessons have been important in classical literary criticism.
- Matthew Arnold: A critic from the 19th century, Arnold emphasized “high culture” and the critic’s role in finding the best thoughts and ideas. His view of literature as a means for moral and intellectual growth influenced many later critics.
These figures, along with others like Samuel Taylor Coleridge, F.R. Leavis, and Roland Barthes, have given us different ways to understand literature. Their work is still referenced and discussed by modern scholars.
Evaluation of Critical Theories
The last part of this chapter gives a critical look at the different theories of literary criticism that have come up over time. These theories differ in their ideas, methods, and conclusions, but they all aim to understand and explain the complexity of literature.
- Traditional Approaches (Aristotelian, Formalist, etc.): Traditional methods like formalism focus on the elements of a text—its structure, language, and form—believing these features alone can explain the work. However, these methods are often criticized for ignoring the historical, political, and social influences on literature.
- Marxist and Feminist Criticism: These theories highlight how literature reflects or shapes power dynamics in society. Marxist criticism looks at class struggle and economic factors, while feminist criticism examines gender roles and the portrayal of women in literature. While these views have helped to reveal power issues, they can sometimes simplify literature to just social commentary.
- Psychoanalytic Criticism: Based on Freud’s ideas, psychoanalysis studies the hidden motivations of characters, authors, and readers. It offers deep insights into the feelings and fears behind stories but is often criticized for focusing too much on psychological aspects.
- Postmodern and Deconstructionist Criticism: Postmodern criticism, linked with thinkers like Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, questions fixed meanings in texts, suggesting that language is always changing. Deconstruction aims to reveal contradictions in texts. While postmodernism has helped to broaden perspectives, it has also been criticized for leading to a lack of clear standards for critique.
The chapter wraps up with a look at the speculations, smart guesses, and beliefs found in these different theories. Some methods are based on changing ideas, while others, once established, can become rigid and resist new interpretations. While no single theory has all the answers, each offers valuable insights into how literature works, what it shows about humanity, and how we can understand it in a broader cultural and historical context.
Chapter 2: The Phantom Aesthetic State
Understanding the Aesthetic State
In this part, we look at the “aesthetic state,” which is the special feeling a reader or viewer has when enjoying art or literature. This feeling involves being deeply engaged, thinking deeply, and having strong emotions that lift a person above everyday worries. It’s called a “phantom” state because it can be hard to grasp and seems to come and go, but it is a key part of experiencing art.
The idea of the aesthetic state has changed over time. In Ancient Greece, Aristotle talked about how tragedies could stir emotions and cleanse the audience. Later, during the Enlightenment, thinkers like Immanuel Kant described how art can give a special kind of pleasure that comes from its beauty, rather than its usefulness or moral messages.
In the 19th century, Romanticism made the aesthetic experience more personal and emotional. Critics like Friedrich Schiller and Walter Pater highlighted how art can help people rise above ordinary life. Today, critics are still discussing how art is experienced in our modern, media-filled world. Although the aesthetic state may seem less clear now, it is still very important in how we interact with art.
Feelings and Art
This section looks at the strong link between feelings and the aesthetic experience. When we enjoy literature or art, our emotional responses can be just as important, if not more so, than our logical thoughts. The aesthetic state is closely tied to how we feel: the beauty, fear, or relief we feel while reading a book or watching a movie can greatly affect how we understand it.
Criticism has tried to analyze the feelings that art brings out. For example, Kant linked emotional pleasure to beauty and the enjoyable interaction between our senses and thoughts when we encounter art. In contrast, thinkers like Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung believed our emotional reactions to literature are influenced by deeper, often hidden forces, whether personal or universal.
Romantic critics valued emotion highly, insisting that real art comes from a strong connection between the artist’s feelings and the audience’s experience of those feelings. This led to the idea that art is a way for personal expression, with emotional impact being a key measure of its value. However, formalist critics like T.S. Eliot argued that our emotional responses should come second to the artistic structure and technique of the work.
The relationship between feelings and the aesthetic experience is active. How we emotionally respond to a piece can change how we interpret its characters, themes, and endings. This is especially true in genres like tragedy or horror, where emotional involvement is meant to lead us to important realizations.
So, the connection between criticism and feelings is lively: while criticism can help us understand the emotions in art, our emotional experience often gives us the clearest and most meaningful insight into the work. This makes the aesthetic state not just a mental task but an emotional journey that connects us with the art, the artist, and ourselves.
Language and Communication
This part talks about how important language is in sharing feelings and experiences related to art. Language does more than just give information; it helps art express deeper emotions and thoughts. In books, words help share complex feelings and ideas, letting readers connect with different worlds. Language can stir feelings and make us think, making our experience with art closely linked to the words used.
How language connects to art is important for understanding literature because it shows how well a text shares its message. Through tools like metaphor and rhythm, language affects how readers feel and understand, creating a rich experience that goes beyond just the surface. Critics work to understand how the way a text is written shapes how readers react. This includes seeing how language not only shows but also creates the world of the text, revealing hidden meanings and influencing how readers feel and think.
Besides sharing artistic experiences, language is also key for communication. Criticism, which discusses literature, depends on language to share and interpret these experiences. How well critics communicate relies on their skill in expressing the subtle feelings and thoughts that art brings out. Communication is not just necessary; it’s vital for experiencing art together and appreciating it as a group.
Psychological Aspects
This section explores the psychological ideas that help us understand experiences with art. Engaging with art involves not just thinking or feeling but also deeper mental processes. Psychological theories, especially from Freud and Jung, give insight into how our minds react to art. For instance, Freud’s ideas suggest that our feelings about literature often come from hidden desires and unresolved issues. A text might bring up buried emotions, and experiencing art can sometimes help people feel relief from these feelings.
Jungian psychology focuses on common symbols and shared human thoughts. Jung believed that certain themes in literature and art connect with universal psychological patterns, resonating with readers on a deep level. This view helps explain why some artworks, rich in symbols, can evoke strong emotional responses in people from different cultures and times.
Modern psychology also helps us see how our mental states affect how we judge art. For example, cognitive theories show that our perception, memory, and focus change how we interact with texts. Our mood while reading, our previous experiences, and our mental frameworks can all affect how we understand a text. Thus, critics are not completely objective; they are influenced by their own psychological processes.
Using a psychological approach allows critics to look at not just the emotional and intellectual effects of a work but also how a person’s mental background and experiences shape their view of art. This is especially important when looking at how personal interpretation affects literary criticism, as each critic brings their own experiences to reading.
The Role of Value
The idea of “value” is key in discussing literary criticism as it shapes how we judge and appreciate literature. Value judgments deal with both the artistic and moral aspects of a text. What makes one work “better” or “more important” than another? What standards should critics use to decide a text’s worth? This section looks at how these judgments are formed and what they mean for criticism.
Aesthetic value can be seen as somewhat objective, based on qualities like structure and style. Critics may agree that some texts have special qualities, like unity of form or emotional depth, that make them great works of art. However, many believe that a work’s value involves more than just its formal qualities. Context, like historical importance and cultural relevance, also plays a big role in shaping these judgments.
Value judgments are very personal and shaped by personal tastes, social trends, and cultural backgrounds. What is valued in one time might not be in another. For example, some authors who were once ignored can become appreciated as new perspectives come up. Changes in literary theory can also affect how we value texts and authors as new issues arise.
A major point about value in literary criticism is the difference between high art and popular culture. How valuable a text is can depend on its place in the “canon” of literature—works traditionally respected—or its popularity. Critics often ask if literary value should focus on universal themes, complex techniques, or social issues, or if popular works deserve attention too.
Finally, value judgments in literary criticism impact literature’s role in society. By deciding what is “worthy” of attention, critics help shape cultural tastes, influence education, and define the significance of texts. However, the subjective nature of these judgments means that criticism is always changing, influenced by new ideas and cultural norms.
In summary, understanding the role of value in literary criticism is important as it guides how we choose and interpret works, shaping our view of literature’s cultural importance. How we form and express these judgments—whether through analysis, psychological insights, or social critiques—reflects our broader views on art and culture.