Popular Resistance in the Period of colonial India

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In this post, notes of “Unit 6: Popular Resistance: The Uprising of 1857, Peasant Resistance “ from “DSC- 2: History of India-6: (c. 1500- 1600s)” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.

1. The Uprising of 1857

The Uprising of 1857, also called the Indian Rebellion of 1857 or the First War of Indian Independence, was an important event in Indian history. It was a large-scale, but ultimately failed, effort by many Indians to end British control over India, specifically the rule of the British East India Company. Although the rebellion was suppressed, it set the stage for future nationalist movements in India.

1.1 Background and Causes

Political Causes

The British East India Company had been expanding its control over India, which upset many Indian rulers who lost their power.

  1. Doctrine of Lapse: This policy, introduced by Lord Dalhousie, allowed the British to take over Indian kingdoms if the ruler had no natural heir. This angered many nobles, especially the Marathas and Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi.
  2. Mismanagement: The British controlled India’s administration and economy without Indian representation, leading to widespread dissatisfaction.

Economic Causes

British economic policies exploited India, causing hardship for many.

  1. Heavy Taxation: British taxes burdened farmers and artisans, with money often sent to Britain instead of improving local infrastructure.
  2. Decline of Industries: British policies harmed Indian industries, particularly textiles, leading to increased poverty and dependence on British goods.

Social and Religious Causes

  1. Social Reforms: While some British reforms, like banning sati (widow burning), were beneficial, they were seen as interference in Indian traditions, creating resistance.
  2. Religious Insensitivity: The British were viewed as disrespectful to Indian religions. The introduction of the Enfield rifle in 1857, which required soldiers to bite cartridges believed to be greased with animal fat, offended both Hindus and Muslims.

Immediate Triggers

The uprising began with discontent among sepoys (Indian soldiers) in the British army. The revolt started in Meerut in May 1857 due to the cartridge issue and quickly spread across Northern and Central India.

1.2 Major Centers of Revolt

The uprising was not a single event but a series of revolts across India, driven by various groups.

Regional Focus

  1. Meerut: The rebellion started here on May 10, 1857, when Indian soldiers revolted, sparking further uprisings.
  2. Delhi: The rebels declared Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, as their leader. Delhi became a central focus of the rebellion but was retaken by the British in September 1857.
  3. Kanpur (Cawnpore): Nana Sahib led a significant revolt here, marked by violent clashes.
  4. Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal was a key leader in Lucknow, where British forces were besieged for months before eventually regaining control.

Key Leaders

  1. Bahadur Shah Zafar: Although his power was limited, his role as a symbolic leader united the rebels.
  2. Rani Lakshmibai: The queen of Jhansi became a prominent figure in the rebellion, symbolizing resistance.
  3. Nana Sahib: He led the revolt in Kanpur and was crucial in the siege against British forces.

1.3 Course of the Uprising

Timeline of Major Events

  1. May 1857: The sepoys rebel in Meerut and march to Delhi, declaring Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader. The rebellion spreads quickly.
  2. June 1857: The British face challenges in Delhi and Kanpur, with significant resistance.
  3. September 1857: The British retake Delhi, capturing Bahadur Shah Zafar.
  4. December 1857: British forces regain control of most areas, though fighting continues.
  5. March 1858: The rebellion in Lucknow is crushed, and Rani Lakshmibai dies fighting.

British Response

The British responded with harsh measures, including:

  1. Mass executions of suspected rebels and civilians.
  2. Destruction of homes and communities that supported the uprising.

1.4 Participation Across Communities

Involvement of Different Groups

  1. Peasants: They revolted against high taxes and loss of land rights, joining the uprising in places like Awadh.
  2. Soldiers: The sepoys were among the first to rebel due to grievances about pay and treatment.
  3. Artisans: Many artisans supported the rebellion as British policies threatened their livelihoods.

Role of Women and Marginalized Communities

  1. Women: Leaders like Rani Lakshmibai and Begum Hazrat Mahal played significant roles in the uprising.
  2. Dalits and Lower Castes: Many from these communities joined the rebellion, resenting British exploitation.

1.5 Consequences and Aftermath

Impact on British Policies

  1. The British government took direct control of India, ending the East India Company’s rule and establishing the British Raj in 1858.
  2. New laws were created to prevent further uprisings, and military presence increased.

Effects on Indian Society

  1. The rebellion caused devastation in many areas and disrupted traditional structures.
  2. Land reforms favored British interests, further entrenching colonial control.

Evaluations of the Uprising

Though the rebellion failed to end British rule, it was the first large-scale resistance against colonialism and marked a turning point in Indian history, inspiring future nationalist movements.

1.6 Historical Interpretations

Different Perspectives

Historians have different views on the significance of the 1857 uprising:

  1. Nationalist Historians: Many see it as the First War of Independence.
  2. British Historians: They often view it as a mutiny, a failure of Indian soldiers.
  3. Modern Historians: They emphasize the social, economic, and religious factors behind the revolt, viewing it as a precursor to later nationalist movements.

In summary, the Uprising of 1857 was a key moment in Indian history that began a broader movement for independence and unity against British rule.

2. Peasant Resistance to Colonial Rule

2.1 Santhal Uprising (1855-56)

The Santhal Uprising, also called the Santhal Rebellion, was an important tribal revolt that took place from 1855 to 1856 in the Chotanagpur plateau, which is now part of Jharkhand, Bengal, and Bihar. It was led by the Santhal tribe, one of India’s indigenous communities. The uprising was a response to the increasing oppression from landlords, moneylenders, and the British colonial government. It is recognized as one of the key pre-independence tribal revolts in India.

Background of the Santhal Community

The Santhals are one of the largest tribal groups in India, mainly living in Bengal, Jharkhand, and Bihar. They traditionally governed themselves within their villages and engaged in activities like agriculture and forestry.

  1. Tribal Structure: The Santhals had a decentralized system where each village had its own council to manage local issues. Most Santhals depended on farming and forest resources for their livelihood.
  2. Cultural Identity: The Santhals practiced their own religion, which included animistic beliefs and rituals connected to nature and their ancestors. They had distinct customs and language, setting them apart from mainstream Hindu society.

However, as British control expanded, the Santhals faced increasing pressure on their lands.

Reasons for Discontent: Exploitation and Land Policies

Several factors led to the Santhal Uprising, mainly the exploitation by the British government, local landlords, and moneylenders:

  1. Landlord and Moneylender Exploitation: The Zamindari system established by the British allowed landlords to control large areas of land. The Santhals, who were traditional farmers, faced heavy taxes and demands from these landlords. Moneylenders charged very high-interest rates, trapping the Santhals in debt.
  2. Land Loss: British expansion led to the loss of Santhal lands to non-tribal settlers and the British administration. New land policies prioritized settlers and tax collection, further marginalizing the Santhals.
  3. Social and Economic Abuse: The Santhals experienced forced labor, poor treatment from British officials, and discrimination from settlers. Economic hardships and cultural oppression fueled their anger.
  4. Religious and Cultural Frustration: The Santhals felt increasingly alienated due to the influence of Christian missionaries and British interference in their customs, leading to a sense of being attacked both economically and culturally.

Key Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu

The Santhal Uprising was led by two brothers, Sidhu Murmu and Kanhu Murmu, who were vital in organizing the rebellion:

  1. Sidhu Murmu: Sidhu was a strong leader who rallied the Santhals against British and landlord oppression. He united the tribe to fight back.
  2. Kanhu Murmu: Kanhu, Sidhu’s brother, played a crucial role in leading the Santhals in battle, using guerrilla tactics. Together, the Murmu brothers became symbols of resistance for the Santhal community.

Course of the Rebellion and Its Suppression

Beginning of the Uprising

The Santhal Uprising started in June 1855 when rebels led by Sidhu and Kanhu began attacking zamindars and moneylenders who had exploited them. The Santhals initially succeeded in organizing resistance across several districts.

  1. Formation of the Santhal Hul (Revolt): The Santhals raised the battle cry of “Hul,” meaning rebellion, and established strongholds in forest areas of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. They targeted British military posts and officials to overthrow the oppressive system.
  2. Military Actions: The Santhals launched attacks against British forces and zamindar properties, capturing land and disrupting British control. They employed guerrilla tactics effectively.
British Response and Suppression

The British quickly responded to the uprising with force:

  1. Military Action: The British sent large military units to crush the rebellion, using superior weapons and tactics. Eventually, they overwhelmed the Santhal fighters.
  2. Repression and Violence: After the rebellion was suppressed, the British took harsh measures against the Santhals, including arrests, executions, and destruction of their settlements. Many Santhals were killed or exiled, and leaders like Sidhu and Kanhu were captured and executed.

The uprising ended by 1856, but the brutal repression left lasting trauma in the tribal communities.

Impact on Tribal Policies and Future Movements

1. Changes in Tribal Policies

  • Land System Reforms: The suppression of the Santhal Uprising led to some changes in land policies, though the British aimed to maintain control. The aftermath highlighted the flaws in existing policies, resulting in limited reforms.
  • Santhal Paragana Settlement Regulation (1855): To appease the Santhals and prevent further uprisings, the British introduced this regulation, granting limited land rights to the Santhals in Santhal Pargana (now Jharkhand). However, it did not address the root causes of the rebellion.

2. Influence on Future Movements

The Santhal Uprising had a lasting effect on Indian society:

  • Increased Tribal Awareness: The uprising fostered a sense of tribal identity and resistance to British rule, inspiring future tribal leaders.
  • Inspiration for Peasant Movements: The rebellion influenced later movements against exploitation in rural India, such as the Indigo Rebellion, Munda Rebellion, and Champaran Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi.
  • Legacy of Resistance: The Murmu brothers became symbols of resistance in tribal communities, and their struggle is seen as part of the larger fight against colonialism, paving the way for later nationalist movements in India.

Conclusion

The Santhal Uprising of 1855-56 is a crucial chapter in India’s history of tribal resistance against colonial exploitation. Driven by the oppression faced by the Santhal tribe, the rebellion highlighted the need for land reforms and better integration of tribal communities into Indian society. Although it was ultimately suppressed, the uprising had a significant impact on future tribal movements and peasant struggles in India.

2.2 Indigo Rebellion (1859-60)

The Indigo Rebellion, also known as the Indigo Revolt, took place from 1859 to 1860. It was a major uprising by indigo farmers against European planters in Bengal and parts of Bihar. This revolt is an important part of India’s fight against colonial rule, showing the struggles of rural farmers under British control.

Economic and Social Conditions of Indigo Farmers

Indigo farmers, mostly peasants and small farmers, faced tough conditions due to the British system of indigo cultivation for dye used in textiles.

  1. Dependence on Agriculture: Farmers in Bengal and Bihar traditionally grew food crops for their survival. However, the British took large areas of land for indigo, which was in high demand in Europe.
  2. Forced Farming: The British and European planters forced farmers to grow indigo instead of food. They used a system called tinkathia, requiring farmers to use three-tenths of their land for indigo, regardless of whether it was suitable.
  3. Debt and Exploitation: To grow indigo, farmers often had to borrow money from planters or moneylenders. These loans came with high-interest rates, leading to a cycle of poverty and exploitation when they couldn’t repay.

Abuses by European Planters

European planters used several unfair practices that led to the farmers’ anger and the revolt:

  1. Tinkathia System: Farmers were forced to grow indigo on part of their land, even if it was better for food crops. Not complying led to severe penalties, creating a sense of oppression.
  2. Low Prices: Planters paid farmers very little for indigo, often setting prices unfairly and deducting costs for transport, leaving farmers with almost no profit.
  3. Violence and Intimidation: To enforce indigo farming, planters used threats and violence. They intimidated farmers, destroyed their crops, and even physically attacked those who resisted, which increased resentment.
  4. Deceptive Contracts: Planters tricked farmers into signing unfair contracts. When harvests were poor, they still demanded the full amount of indigo, putting financial pressure on the farmers.

Key Incidents and Leadership: Biswanath Sardar

The Indigo Rebellion began in 1859 in districts like Nadia, Murshidabad, and Bankura due to ongoing exploitation of indigo farmers.

  1. Leadership of Biswanath Sardar: Biswanath Sardar was a key leader who organized farmers to resist the planters. He encouraged them to stop growing indigo and protest against the tinkathia system.
  2. Incidents Leading to the Revolt: The revolt started when farmers refused to grow indigo and demanded better conditions. They engaged in armed skirmishes, attacked planters, destroyed indigo factories, and confronted British officials.
    • Revolt in Nadia: The first major uprising occurred in Nadia, where farmers led by Biswanath Sardar refused to supply indigo. This sparked similar actions in other districts.
    • Revolt in Bankura: Significant resistance also took place in Bankura and Murshidabad, where farmers united against exploitation. The British sent military forces to suppress the uprising.
  3. Repression by British Authorities: The British responded harshly, imposing martial law and using military force to control the situation. Many leaders, including Biswanath Sardar, were arrested, and several farmers were killed.

Methods of Resistance and Outcomes

  1. Non-Cooperation with Planters: Farmers primarily resisted by refusing to grow indigo. They organized collective actions, destroyed indigo fields, and boycotted planter goods.
  2. Armed Resistance: Some farmers took up arms, attacking indigo factories and planter properties. The movement started locally but became more organized over time.
  3. Role of Women: Women were also active in the rebellion, leading protests and supporting the farmers.

Outcomes:

  1. Failure to Achieve Immediate Goals: Although many participated and fought back, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed. The leaders were arrested, and repressive measures were enacted. The indigo system continued, but the revolt raised awareness of farmers’ struggles.
  2. Decline of the Indigo System: The rebellion led to economic losses for planters and drew attention to the exploitation of farmers. Public opinion turned against planters, contributing to the decline of the indigo industry in India.
  3. Psychological Impact: The revolt showed the power of organized resistance among farmers and set the stage for future movements, like the Champaran Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi in 1917.

Impact on Colonial Agricultural Policies

  1. Introduction of Reforms: After the Indigo Rebellion, the British government began to rethink its agricultural policies. While some reforms were introduced, they did not significantly improve conditions for farmers.
  2. Rise of Nationalist Movements: The rebellion fueled nationalist sentiment in India. It raised public awareness about British exploitation and led to more peasant movements across the country.
  3. Awakening of Peasant Consciousness: The revolt highlighted the struggles of Indian farmers, leading to increased peasant leadership and influencing future agrarian movements.

Conclusion

The Indigo Rebellion of 1859-60 was an early example of rural resistance against colonial exploitation in India. Although it was suppressed, it revealed the harsh realities faced by farmers and the brutality of European planters. The rebellion laid the groundwork for future peasant struggles and became a significant moment in the broader movement against British rule in India.

2.3 Kol Uprising (1830-32)

The Kol Uprising (1830-32) was a significant revolt by the Kol tribe against British colonial rule in the Chotanagpur Plateau, which includes parts of Jharkhand, Bihar, and West Bengal. This uprising marked one of the early tribal protests against British control in India.

Background of the Kol Tribe and Their Issues

The Kol tribe, part of the indigenous Adivasi community, lived in the forests of Chotanagpur and relied on agriculture, hunting, and gathering for their livelihood. They had their own social structures, like village councils, but British policies disrupted their way of life.

Several main issues led to the Kol Uprising:

  1. Loss of Land: The British introduced the Zamindari system, which allowed landlords to take large areas of land. This pushed the Kol people off their land or forced them to work as laborers under poor conditions.
  2. Exploitation by Landlords: Many Kol people fell into debt due to high-interest loans from moneylenders and exploitation by landlords, making it hard for them to keep their land and dignity.
  3. Disrespect for Tribal Traditions: British rule and the arrival of outsiders threatened the Kol’s traditional customs, religious practices, and self-governance.
  4. Restrictions on Forest Resources: The Kol relied on forests for resources but faced restrictions from colonial forest laws, impacting their livelihoods.

Land Issues and Exploitation

The Zamindari system had a harmful effect on the Kol. Landlords often forced the Kol to work their own land without fair compensation. Additionally:

  1. Forced Labor: Many Kol were made to work as forced laborers without pay.
  2. Debt Bondage: The Kol often borrowed money to survive, but high-interest rates led them deeper into debt, causing them to lose their land or work under harsh conditions.

These economic struggles fueled unrest among the Kol.

Leaders and Structure of the Rebellion

The uprising was led by several local tribal leaders rather than a single figure. Key leaders included:

  1. Baba Tilka: He was a prominent leader who united the Kol tribes and led attacks against British forces and landlords. His bravery made him a symbol of tribal resistance.
  2. Organizational Structure: The rebellion was not centrally organized but was a spontaneous response from various villages. The Kol formed militias to fight against British soldiers and landlords.
  3. Community Support: Local village councils, or panchayats, played a crucial role in organizing the rebellion and gaining local support.

Course of the Uprising and Its Suppression

The Kol Uprising began in 1830 when Kol peasants, frustrated by exploitation, attacked British soldiers and landlords. The movement quickly spread, gaining support from other tribal and peasant groups.

  1. Early Success: Initially, the Kol achieved significant victories, destroying British settlements and killing landlords.
  2. British Response: The British retaliated with military force, sending troops and police to suppress the uprising. They used violent methods against the Kol rebels.
  3. Capture of Baba Tilka: Eventually, the British captured Baba Tilka and dismantled the leadership of the rebellion. By 1832, the uprising was crushed, leading to mass executions and the destruction of Kol villages.

Long-Term Effects on Tribal Resistance

Although the Kol Uprising did not succeed in its immediate goals, it had lasting impacts:

  1. Inspiration for Future Revolts: The uprising inspired later tribal movements in India, highlighting the harshness of colonial land policies and becoming a symbol of resistance.
  2. Awareness of Tribal Identity: It raised awareness among tribal communities about the importance of preserving their culture and autonomy, laying the groundwork for a broader tribal identity.
  3. Impact on Colonial Policies: While the uprising did not lead to immediate reforms, it prompted the British to recognize the need for changes in their land policies, particularly concerning tribal areas.

2.4 Themes in Peasant Resistance

Peasant resistance movements in colonial India were common and varied, but they shared themes of dissatisfaction with economic exploitation, land loss, and social injustice.

Common Causes of Peasant Uprisings

  1. Economic Exploitation: Many peasant revolts arose from economic oppression, with heavy taxes and forced labor creating widespread resentment.
  2. Loss of Land: The alienation of land due to colonial policies and the influence of moneylenders was a common grievance.
  3. Debt and Poverty: High-interest loans and exploitation led many peasants into debt, prompting them to revolt.

Forms of Resistance: Armed and Passive

Peasants used various methods of resistance:

  1. Armed Rebellion: Many uprisings, like the Indigo Rebellion and the Kol Uprising, involved violent resistance against landlords and colonial authorities.
  2. Passive Resistance: Some peasants resisted through non-cooperation, refusing to pay taxes or abandoning cultivation.

Role of Local Leaders and Community Involvement

Local leaders were vital in organizing resistance. Community participation played a significant role, with leaders like Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu (Santhal Uprising) and Baba Tilka (Kol Uprising) becoming symbols of resistance. Local social and religious networks helped support these movements.

Impact on Colonial Policies

Peasant uprisings influenced colonial policies, leading British authorities to address some grievances and attempt reforms. However, these reforms were often ineffective and aimed more at maintaining the colonial system than genuinely helping peasants.

In the long term, these uprisings contributed to a growing sense of resistance and nationalism in India, ultimately leading to the broader Indian Independence Movement.


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