In this post, notes of “Unit 1: Transition from Feudalism to Capitalism” from “DSC- 3: History of Modern Japan (c. 1868 – 1950s)” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year
Crisis of the Tokugawa Bakuhan System
Overview of Tokugawa Bakuhan System
The Tokugawa Bakuhan system was a political and feudal structure in Japan from 1603 to 1868, during the Edo period. It was created by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first shogun, after he won the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. This system combined a strong central military government (the bakufu) led by the shogun with local feudal domains (han) ruled by daimyōs (feudal lords). Here’s a closer look at how it was set up, how it worked, and the social classes involved.
1. Establishment and Administration of the Tokugawa Bakuhan System
After his victory in 1600, Tokugawa Ieyasu became the Shogun, marking the start of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Bakuhan system aimed to strengthen the shogunate’s power while keeping the feudal system in place.
- Shogunate: The Tokugawa shogunate was the main authority, with the shōgun as the military leader. The shōgun had significant power over the military, finances, and foreign affairs, while the Emperor in Kyoto remained a symbolic figurehead with mostly ceremonial duties. The shoguns kept the Emperor’s role limited to maintain a balance of power.
- Daimyōs (Feudal Lords): Japan was divided into about 250 han (domains), each ruled by a daimyō. These lords managed their regions, including local laws and taxes, but had to stay loyal to the shogun. They followed a system called sankin-kōtai, which required them to spend alternate years in the shogun’s capital, Edo (now Tokyo), to help the shogunate keep an eye on them.
- Bakufu Administration: The shogunate ran a centralized government called the bakufu, based in Edo. Important parts of this administration included:
- Rōjū: Senior councilors who helped the shōgun govern.
- Samurai: The samurai class handled military and administrative duties.
- Shinpan, Fudai, and Tozama Daimyōs: These categories of daimyōs were based on their connections to the Tokugawa family, with Shinpan being relatives, Fudai longtime allies, and Tozama more recent and less trusted allies.
2. Social Hierarchy and the Samurai Class
The Tokugawa period had a strict social structure known as shinōkōshō, dividing society into four main classes.
- 1. Samurai (Bushi): Samurai were at the top of the hierarchy, serving as warriors and bureaucrats. They were expected to follow the Bushidō code, which stressed loyalty and honor. The samurai class included:
- Shōgun’s Samurai: Those who served directly under the shōgun.
- Daimyō’s Samurai: Samurai working for the daimyōs in various roles.
- Ronin: Samurai without a lord, often struggling for work.
- 2. Peasants (Hyakushō): Most people were peasants, who grew food and goods for the economy. They were tied to the land and had to pay taxes, often in rice. Peasant uprisings happened when taxes became too heavy.
- 3. Artisans (Kōmin): Artisans were skilled workers in crafts like carpentry and pottery. They lived in towns and contributed to the economy but ranked below peasants in the social order.
- 4. Merchants (Shōnin): Merchants were at the bottom of the hierarchy, even though some were wealthy. They traded goods but were not held in high regard compared to samurai. However, as the economy grew, merchants gained more influence, especially in cities like Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto.
Role of the Samurai Class:
While samurai were the elite, their roles changed during the peaceful Tokugawa era. With less fighting, many became bureaucrats instead of warriors. They were still expected to uphold honor and loyalty. However, many samurai faced financial struggles, especially later in the period, as fewer jobs were available. Some took on lower-paying jobs or bureaucratic roles, leading to dissatisfaction within their ranks.
Summary
The Tokugawa Bakuhan system combined strong military rule with local feudal governance. While the Tokugawa shogunate held power, daimyōs managed their domains. The social structure placed samurai at the top, but their roles shifted from warriors to administrators during a time of peace. Peasants, artisans, and merchants each had their place in society, with samurai facing economic challenges as the era progressed.
Economic Challenges and Decline of the Tokugawa Shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled Japan for over 250 years, created a stable and peaceful society. However, by the 18th and 19th centuries, it faced several economic problems that contributed to its decline.
Agricultural Issues
- Slow Growth in Farming: Early in the Tokugawa period, farming improved due to better irrigation and crop rotation. But later, agricultural growth slowed down. As the population grew and available farmland decreased, rural areas struggled with land scarcity, leading to less productive farms.
- Heavy Taxes: The shogunate relied on taxes from land, usually paid in rice. High taxes placed a heavy burden on peasants, especially during poor harvests, which could lead to famine and unrest. For example, bad harvests in the early 19th century worsened the conditions for farmers.
- Complicated Land Ownership: The feudal landholding system was complex. While daimyōs (feudal lords) owned large areas, much of the land was managed by others or divided among smaller farms. This made it hard to manage land effectively and slowed agricultural progress.
Financial Struggles
- Samurai Debt: The shogunate struggled financially due to rising military and administrative costs. Although samurai held a high social status, many faced poverty because their salaries, paid in rice, did not keep pace with inflation. This led many samurai into debt and dependence on wealthy merchants.
- Daimyō Debt: The daimyōs also faced financial issues, especially towards the end of the Tokugawa era. They were often in debt from maintaining their castles and military forces. Many had to sell land or borrow money from merchants, increasing the merchants’ power.
Political Unrest and External Pressures
By the 19th century, the Tokugawa shogunate faced growing challenges from both internal unrest and external pressures.
Anti-Bakufu Movements
- Samurai Discontent: Many samurai became unhappy with the shogunate due to financial struggles and began to push for reforms and change.
- Peasant Revolts: Peasants also rebelled against heavy taxation and poor harvests. Notable uprisings included the Ōshio Heihachirō Rebellion in 1837, where a samurai led a revolt for reform. Other protests erupted over rising living costs.
- Intellectual Movements: Ideas like Sonno Joi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians) gained popularity, calling for a return to imperial rule and pushing against foreign influence. These ideas fueled resentment towards the shogunate.
Western Intrusion and Unequal Treaties
- Opening Japan: In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry from the United States pressured Japan to open for trade. The shogunate signed the Kanagawa Treaty in 1854, allowing American ships to dock, which marked the start of foreign influence in Japan.
- Unequal Treaties: Japan signed several unequal treaties with Western countries, granting them special rights and favoring foreign goods. These treaties were seen as humiliating and increased resentment towards the shogunate for failing to protect Japan’s sovereignty.
- National Security Concerns: The presence of Western powers highlighted Japan’s military weaknesses, further undermining the shogunate’s authority.
Intellectual and Social Movements
During this period, various intellectual and social movements emerged, influencing the eventual fall of the Tokugawa regime.
Kokugaku and Rangaku
- Kokugaku (National Learning): This movement focused on studying Japan’s own culture and history, promoting a return to traditional values and a stronger connection with the emperor. Scholars like Motoori Norinaga emphasized the importance of Japanese identity.
- Rangaku (Dutch Learning): This involved studying Western knowledge through Dutch sources, which were the only Europeans allowed in Japan. Scholars learned about Western science and military techniques, fostering technological progress and reformist ideas.
Revolts
- Samurai Revolts: Discontented samurai led many uprisings against the Tokugawa government, motivated by economic hardship and a desire for political change.
- Peasant Revolts: Peasants also revolted due to high taxes and local corruption, especially during famines. Regions like Tōkaidō and Chōshū became centers of resistance, contributing to the dissatisfaction that led to the Meiji Restoration.
Summary
The Tokugawa shogunate, initially successful in maintaining peace, faced economic difficulties due to agricultural issues and financial strains on the samurai class. Externally, pressure from Western powers and unequal treaties increased political challenges. Domestically, rising anti-Bakufu movements and intellectual currents like Kokugaku and Rangaku questioned the existing order. These internal and external tensions ultimately led to the fall of the Tokugawa regime and the restoration of imperial rule in 1868.
The Meiji Restoration: Nature and Significance; Early Meiji Reforms
1. Nature and Significance of the Meiji Restoration
The Meiji Restoration was a crucial event in Japanese history that took place in 1868. It ended over 250 years of feudal rule by the Tokugawa shogunate and restored power to the emperor, Emperor Meiji. This change was important for Japan’s modernization and helped it become a significant world power by the early 20th century. We will look at how the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown, the return of imperial rule, and the key people and ideas that contributed to Japan’s transformation.
Overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate
By the mid-19th century, the Tokugawa shogunate was losing power due to several challenges:
- Economic and Social Issues: The Tokugawa period faced economic troubles like low agricultural productivity and growing debts, leading to dissatisfaction among samurai and peasants.
- Political Weakness: The shogunate struggled to deal with foreign threats, especially from Western powers. The arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 and the signing of unequal treaties showed that the shogunate could not protect Japan’s interests, which weakened its legitimacy.
- Anti-Bakufu Movements: Growing discontent led to movements against the shogunate, where samurai, intellectuals, and merchants called for restoring power to the emperor and expelling foreigners. The Sonno Joi ideology, which meant “Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians,” became a rallying cry for these groups and helped set the stage for the shogunate’s downfall.
- The Boshin War (1868): The final overthrow happened during the Boshin War, a civil war between Tokugawa loyalists and those supporting the emperor. The imperial forces, including samurai from domains like Chōshū, Satsuma, and Tosa, defeated the Tokugawa troops. This led to the last Tokugawa shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu, stepping down and the fall of the shogunate.
Restoration of Imperial Rule
The Meiji Restoration restored direct rule by the emperor, ending centuries of military governance by the Tokugawa. Key features included:
- Power to the Emperor: After the shogunate’s fall, Emperor Meiji became the central figure in politics. Although the Meiji oligarchs (influential samurai and leaders) held much power, they claimed to restore the emperor’s rightful authority.
- Centralization and Modernization: The new leaders centralized government control and abolished the feudal system. In 1869, the emperor moved from Kyoto to Edo (renamed Tokyo), marking a shift in power. Feudal domains were replaced with prefectures, and the samurai class began to lose its privileges, with a new national army being formed.
- Westernization and Industrialization: The Meiji government focused on modernizing Japan to compete with Western countries. They established new education systems, military organizations, and infrastructure, promoting industrial growth, especially in textiles and transportation. Japan started adopting Western legal systems and industrial practices.
- Constitutional Reforms: One major reform was the Meiji Constitution in 1889, which created a constitutional monarchy. While the emperor had significant power, the constitution also established a bicameral legislature (the Imperial Diet), laying the groundwork for a modern state governed by law.
Key Figures and Ideologies
Several important people and ideas played a vital role in the Meiji Restoration:
Key Figures:
- Emperor Meiji: As the symbolic leader of the restoration, Emperor Meiji (reigned 1867–1912) represented Japan’s unity and modernization, even though real power lay with the Meiji oligarchs.
- Sakamoto Ryōma: A samurai from the Tosa domain, he was instrumental in unifying anti-Tokugawa groups and advocated for a constitutional government.
- Saigō Takamori: A military leader from the Satsuma domain, he played a key role in the Boshin War and later became disillusioned with the government, leading a rebellion in 1877.
- Ōkubo Toshimichi: A leader from the Satsuma domain, he was a major architect of the restoration and early reforms, advocating for the centralization of power.
Key Ideologies:
- Sonno Joi (Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians): This ideology called for restoring imperial power and removing foreign influence, rallying support for the emperor.
- Kokugaku (National Learning): This movement emphasized Japan’s native culture and traditions, helping to strengthen national identity during the Meiji era.
- Westernization and Modernization: The leaders recognized that adopting Western systems was crucial for Japan’s survival and modernization, leading to rapid industrial and social changes.
Significance of the Meiji Restoration
- End of Feudalism: The Restoration ended feudalism and the samurai class‘s political power, centralizing authority under the emperor and creating a modern state.
- Rapid Modernization: It set Japan on a fast track to industrialization and modernization, allowing it to become a regional power by the early 20th century.
- New National Identity: The Restoration helped forge a national identity focused on loyalty to the emperor and Japanese nationalism, unifying the population.
Summary
The Meiji Restoration was a transformative period that overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate and restored power to the emperor. This event led to significant political, social, and economic changes, transforming Japan into a modern state. Key figures like Emperor Meiji, Sakamoto Ryōma, and Ōkubo Toshimichi, along with ideologies like Sonno Joi and Westernization, played essential roles in this rapid modernization.
2. Political and Administrative Reforms
The Meiji Restoration marked a major change in Japan, transforming its political and administrative systems. The Meiji government wanted to centralize power, end the feudal system, and build a strong, modern state.
Centralization of Power and New Government Structure
- End of the Shogunate and Rise of the Emperor: The fall of the Tokugawa shogunate centralized political power under the emperor, guided by the Meiji oligarchs. The emperor, previously a symbolic figure, became the central authority in Japan, while the oligarchs, like Ito Hirobumi and Ōkubo Toshimichi, held much of the actual power.
- Meiji Constitution (1889): A key reform was the creation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889, which established a constitutional monarchy. This constitution recognized the emperor’s important role and introduced a bicameral legislature called the Imperial Diet, which had two houses: the House of Peers (appointed) and the House of Representatives (elected). The emperor retained significant powers, including control over the military.
- Centralized Government: The old feudal system was replaced by a centralized government. The daimyo (feudal lords) lost their power, and the central government took control of all land. The samurai class was abolished as a political force, and new administrative divisions called prefectures were created, with governors appointed by the central government.
- National Army and Conscription: In 1873, the Meiji government introduced a national conscription system, forming a regular army from all social classes instead of relying on samurai. This marked the shift to a modern army using Western military techniques and was crucial for national unity.
Abolition of the Feudal System and Land Reforms
- End of the Han System (1871): The Meiji government abolished the han system, which divided Japan into semi-independent regions. Japan was reorganized into prefectures directly governed by the central government.
- Land Reforms: The land tax reform in 1873 assessed taxes based on land value rather than its yield, increasing government revenue. Land was reclassified and transferred from the daimyo to the state, aiming to create a capitalist agrarian economy with peasants as landowners. However, many peasants faced heavy tax burdens.
- Centralized Control and Bureaucracy: The Meiji government established a modern bureaucracy to efficiently manage the economy and political life, allowing better control over policies and public works.
3. Social and Cultural Changes
The Meiji Restoration was also a time of significant social and cultural change. The government focused on modernization and Westernization, affecting education, social structures, and cultural norms.
Modernization of Education and Adoption of Western Practices
- Western-style Education: A major reform was establishing a national education system based on Western models, especially from Germany and France. The Imperial Rescript on Education (1890) promoted loyalty to the emperor and moral development, laying the groundwork for widespread education in Japan.
- Compulsory Education: In 1872, the government introduced compulsory elementary education, greatly increasing literacy rates. This aimed to create an educated population that could support Japan’s modernization.
- Western Cultural Influence: Japan adopted many Western customs, including clothing, architecture, and social practices. The introduction of Western-style schools and government buildings symbolized Japan’s modernization. Western medicine and technology were also integrated, with experts brought in to aid industrial development.
- Promotion of Science and Technology: The government encouraged the study of science and technology, sending students abroad to learn and bring back knowledge to improve Japan’s economy.
Changes in the Status of Samurai and Commoners
- Decline of the Samurai Class: The status of samurai decreased significantly during the Meiji period. Their privileges, like stipends and the right to bear arms, were abolished, ending their military role. Many samurai had to find new jobs, while some entered government or business.
- Emergence of New Social Classes: The Meiji period saw the rise of new classes, particularly the bourgeoisie and industrial workers. Urbanization and industrialization made Japan’s class structure less rigid, though some hierarchies remained.
- Westernization of Gender Roles: Western ideas began to influence gender roles in Japan. Although society was still largely patriarchal, reforms improved women’s education and rights, gradually redefining women’s roles in society and the workforce.
4. Economic and Industrial Reforms
The Meiji Restoration brought major changes to Japan’s economy, focusing on infrastructure development, industrialization, and adopting Western technology. These changes transformed Japan from an agrarian society to an industrialized nation.
Development of Infrastructure and Transportation
- Railroad Expansion: A crucial reform was the development of Japan’s railroad network, starting with the first railway between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. The government invested heavily in railroads, which became vital for transporting goods and military personnel.
- Telecommunications and Ports: The government also improved telecommunications (like the telegraph) and modernized ports to boost trade. This infrastructure was essential for Japan’s economic modernization.
- Energy and Utilities: Modern utilities, including electricity and water systems, were developed. The establishment of hydroelectric dams and power grids supported industrial growth.
Promotion of Industrialization and Technology Transfer
- Industrial Policy and Government Support: The Meiji government actively promoted industrialization by providing subsidies and infrastructure. Initially, the government managed many industries directly before privatizing them to private conglomerates known as zaibatsu.
- Adoption of Western Technology: The government sought Western technologies, sending students and officials abroad to learn and inviting experts to Japan to help build factories and train workers. By the late 1800s, Japan began developing a strong industrial base in textiles, mining, and manufacturing.
- Zaibatsu and Capitalism: Powerful industrial groups called zaibatsu, like Mitsubishi and Mitsui, emerged during this period, playing a crucial role in Japan’s industrial growth and becoming influential in both business and politics.
Summary
The Meiji Restoration involved significant political, administrative, social, and economic reforms that transformed Japan. The centralization of power and establishment of a modern government replaced the feudal system, while land reforms and the abolition of the samurai class reshaped society. The introduction of Western-style education, promotion of industrialization, and adoption of Western technologies propelled Japan into the ranks of industrialized nations, setting the stage for its emergence as a global power by the early 20th century.
Economic Development in the Meiji Era
The Meiji Era (1868–1912) was a crucial time for Japan’s economic growth. The government made important economic reforms that helped Japan change from a farming society to an industrialized nation. This summary covers key areas such as agricultural reforms, industrialization, financial policies, and labor changes during this time.
1. Agricultural Reforms and Development
At the start of the Meiji period, agriculture was the main part of Japan’s economy. The government introduced several reforms to boost farming productivity and ensure food availability. These land reforms were also aimed at creating a modern, tax-paying population.
Land Tax Reforms
- Land Tax Reform (1873): Before the Meiji reforms, land was taxed based on how much rice it produced, leading to unfair taxes during bad harvests. The Meiji government changed this to a tax based on the land’s value instead of its output.
- Impact on Farmers: This new tax system put pressure on farmers, many of whom fell into debt because they had to pay taxes even when crops failed. Some lost their land, leading to sharecropping or tenancy. However, this reform eventually stabilized government income and helped farming grow.
- New Landowners: The reforms allowed wealthier farmers and former samurai to buy land, creating a new class of land-owning farmers and changing the rural economy.
Improvements in Farming Techniques
- Western Methods: The government encouraged farmers to use Western farming techniques, including new fertilizers and tools, which improved productivity.
- Irrigation and Reclamation: Japan invested in irrigation and land reclamation projects to cultivate more land and ensure a reliable food supply.
- Commercial Agriculture: As the economy modernized, farmers began growing not just rice but also crops like silk and tea, which were in high demand. This helped Japan compete in the global market.
2. Industrialization and Modern Enterprises
The Meiji government focused on industrialization as a key part of building the nation. This shift to an industrial economy led to the creation of zaibatsu, large business groups.
Creation of Zaibatsu
- Government Support: The government invested in industries like textiles and shipbuilding, building infrastructure and offering subsidies to support growth.
- Zaibatsu: These powerful family-run conglomerates operated in various sectors, including manufacturing and banking. The government often helped them with subsidies and contracts.
- Privatization: In the late 1800s, the government privatized many state-run enterprises, allowing the zaibatsu to dominate the economy.
Key Industries
- Textiles: The textile industry, especially silk production, grew rapidly. The government established factories and introduced Western machinery to increase efficiency.
- Shipbuilding: With industrial growth, Japan modernized its navy and merchant fleet, leading to significant advancements in shipbuilding.
- Mining: The mining industry, particularly coal and iron, became essential for industrial growth, supporting the steel industry.
3. Financial and Monetary Policies
A modern financial system was crucial for Japan’s economic growth.
Banking Reforms
- Modern Banking: The government created a centralized banking system, establishing the Bank of Japan in 1882 to regulate currency and stabilize the economy.
- Private Banks: The government also supported private banks that provided loans to businesses, which helped the zaibatsu grow.
- Financial Instruments: New financial tools like government bonds were introduced to raise money for public projects, creating a more dynamic economy.
Currency and Trade
- Currency Stabilization: The government introduced the yen in 1871, pegged to the gold standard, to stabilize the currency and enhance trade.
- International Trade: As Japan industrialized, it expanded its exports, particularly in textiles and ships, becoming an important player in global trade.
4. Labor and Workforce Changes
The rapid industrialization led to significant changes in the labor force.
Urbanization and Factory Work
- Urbanization: Many people moved from rural areas to cities like Tokyo and Osaka to work in factories, leading to the growth of urban centers.
- Factory Work: Industries such as textiles and shipbuilding created many factory jobs, often under poor conditions, with long hours and low pay.
Labor Conditions and Movements
- Working Conditions: Factory workers faced harsh conditions, including long hours (up to 14–16 hours a day) and unsafe environments.
- Labor Movements: As industrialization progressed, workers began to organize for better conditions and formed early labor movements, often influenced by socialist ideas. Although the government initially suppressed these movements, they gained strength by the early 20th century, leading to some legal protections for workers.
Summary
The Meiji Era was a time of major economic change for Japan. Agricultural reforms helped stabilize the economy, while industrialization led to powerful zaibatsu and key industries like textiles and shipbuilding. The government established a modern banking system and improved currency and trade policies, which helped Japan enter the global economy. Meanwhile, poor labor conditions in factories sparked the rise of labor movements, advocating for better rights and protections for workers. These changes were vital in transforming Japan into a modern, industrialized nation by the early 20th century.