In this post, notes of “Unit 3: Society and Economy: Farming in India; Technology and Changes in Society; “ from “DSC- 1: History of India- 4: c. 1200 – 1500” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
1. Farming in India (c.1200 – 1500)
1.1 Introduction to Farming Practices
Farming was very important for the economy during this time, and it shaped society a lot. Farming in India was varied, based on different regions’ climate, land, and culture.
Farming Systems and Methods:
- Mixed Farming: Most farmers grew both food crops and cash crops.
- Irrigation: Irrigation was crucial, especially in areas with little rain. Farmers used wells, tanks, and canals for irrigation.
- Crop Rotation: Farmers changed the crops they grew each season to keep the soil healthy. Some grew multiple crops in a year, like rice, barley, wheat, millet, and legumes.
Main Crops and Crop Rotation:
- Food Crops: Key food crops were rice, wheat, barley, and millet. Rice grew mainly in the Gangetic plains, while wheat was common in the north-west and Deccan.
- Cash Crops: Important cash crops included sugarcane, cotton, indigo, and tobacco. Cotton farming increased because of the demand for textiles.
- Spices: Spices like pepper, cardamom, and turmeric were grown along the coasts and were important for trade.
1.2 Land Ownership and Tenure Systems
Land ownership systems affected farming greatly, especially with new tax systems.
Types of Land Ownership:
- Raiyatwari System: Farmers owned their land directly and paid taxes to the government.
- Zamindari System: In this system, landowners, called Zamindars, collected taxes from farmers who worked the land.
- Mahalwari System: Here, taxes were based on the land area, collected from the village community.
Role of Zamindars and Farmers:
- Zamindars: They were landowners who collected taxes and kept order in rural areas. They often charged high taxes to farmers.
- Farmers: Most people were farmers or farm workers, and their lives depended on landowners and tax systems.
Tax Systems and Land Taxes:
- The Mughal Empire had a detailed tax system created by Akbar. Land tax, called “Zakat,” was a big part of income.
- Tithe System: Farmers paid part of their crops as tax, usually one-sixth or one-third, depending on the area.
- Tax Assessment: Taxes were often based on how fertile the land was, with higher taxes in good years and lower in bad years.
1.3 Farming Innovations and Improvements
Irrigation Methods and Water Management:
- Wells and Tubewells: Wells were the main water source for farming, often deep and needing manual labor or animals to get water.
- Canals: Canals for irrigation became common, especially during the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal period, when Akbar built many canals.
- Tanks and Reservoirs: Tanks were crucial for storing rainwater and managing water during dry times, especially in southern regions.
New Crops and Farming Techniques:
- Crops: New crops like tobacco and maize from the Americas were introduced during this time. Sugarcane farming grew with the sugar industry.
- Farming Methods: Advanced ploughs, like the Ardhan, were used, and oxen helped with work. Techniques like terracing and manuring were common in hilly areas.
- Hybridization: Some early experiments with hybrid crops, especially millet and rice, took place.
Effect of Climate and Environment:
- Climate greatly affected farming. Monsoon seasons impacted crop yields, and droughts or heavy rains could cause crop failures.
- Soil Erosion: In areas with a lot of farming, soil erosion became a problem, prompting sustainable farming practices.
- Flooding and Droughts: Floods and droughts were common and often led to economic issues. Managing water resources became important for rulers.
Overall, farming practices from 1200 to 1500 combined traditional methods and new ideas influenced by different rulers and weather. The farming system had to adapt to growing populations and economic needs, leading to changes in land ownership, taxes, and productivity.
2. Technology and Changes in Society (c.1200 – 1500)
2.1 New Tools and Techniques
Introduction of New Tools: During this time, technology improved a lot due to local ideas and foreign influences from invasions and trade.
- Farming: New tools like better ploughs and irrigation systems helped farmers. The iron plough and improved ox-drawn carts made it easier to farm tougher land.
- Textiles: The spinning wheel and better weaving methods grew the textile industry, especially for cotton and silk. The Persian wheel for irrigation and water mills were also important.
- Gunpowder: In the late medieval period, the use of gunpowder weapons like cannons and firearms changed warfare, making sieges and defenses more effective.
- Metalworking: Advances in making high-quality steel, especially Wootz steel, showed Indian skill. This improved weapons, tools, and farming equipment.
Innovations in Agriculture and Crafts:
- Farming: New irrigation methods, like the Persian wheel, improved crop watering, increasing harvests. Canals helped farming efficiency, especially under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughals.
- Crafts: There were many improvements in textiles and pottery. The art of making muslin grew, and pottery and metalworking reached new heights during the Delhi Sultanate.
- Building: The era saw impressive buildings like the Qutb Minar and the Taj Mahal, which introduced new styles and materials, especially from Persian builders.
Influence of Foreign Technologies:
- Central Asian Influence: Turkish and Persian techniques in carpet making, calligraphy, and domed buildings were introduced. Persian and Mongol styles influenced architecture.
- Mongol Influence: The Mongol Empire spread Chinese technologies like printing, gunpowder, and paper-making to India by the late medieval period.
2.2 Changes in Society
New Jobs:
- Specialized Jobs: As cities grew, people began to specialize in jobs like farming, trading, weaving, and metalworking. New jobs in commerce and administration also appeared.
- Farming Changes: Improved irrigation and crop methods made farming more organized. Some areas focused on cash crops like sugarcane.
- Urban Growth: Cities like Delhi, Lahore, Jaipur, and Agra became important for merchants and artisans.
Growth of Artisan and Merchant Classes:
- Artisans: With new technology and demand for goods, craftsmen like weavers and blacksmiths gained importance.
- Merchants: Trade networks, both local and foreign, helped create a wealthy merchant class. The Indian Ocean trade introduced new goods like spices and textiles.
- Guilds: Merchants and artisans formed guilds to manage trade, set prices, and maintain quality.
Social Mobility:
- Caste System: The caste system influenced jobs and social interactions, but cities offered more chances for social mobility, especially for traders and skilled workers.
- Rural vs. Urban: Rural areas remained focused on farming, while cities allowed for more diversity and social movement.
- Women’s Roles: Women in rural areas were key to farming and household work, though their mobility was often limited. Some women started to engage more in trade and crafts.
2.3 Cultural and Intellectual Developments
Impact of Technology on Art and Architecture:
- Architecture: New Islamic architectural styles brought features like arches and domes. Buildings such as the Qutb Minar showed a mix of Persian, Central Asian, and local designs.
- Art: Better textile and metalworking led to flourishing arts. Persian styles influenced Indian miniatures, and calligraphy grew under Islamic rulers.
- Painting: The Mughal School of Painting developed, combining Indian and Persian styles with detailed watercolors.
Spread of Education:
- Education: Islamic rulers set up madrasas for teaching religion and science. Sufism also spread learning, including poetry.
- Languages: Persian became important for literature and administration, while Sanskrit remained vital for Hindu studies. Regional languages grew with local literature, especially through the Bhakti movement and Sufi mysticism.
- Learning Centers: Institutions like the Alai Darwaza in Delhi encouraged knowledge sharing.
Advancements in Science:
- Astronomy: Scholars like Varahamihira contributed to astronomy, with observatories built under rulers like Raja Jai Singh II.
- Medicine: Knowledge exchange with the Arab world advanced Ayurveda, and texts like the Sushruta Samhita were translated into Arabic.
- Mathematics: India’s contributions to math, like decimal notation and zero, influenced global systems. Scholars like Bhaskaracharya impacted Islamic math.
In summary, from c.1200 to 1500, India saw great technological and social changes. New tools in farming and crafts shaped society, while cultural and intellectual growth laid the groundwork for art, architecture, and scientific knowledge.
3. Monetization; Market Rules; Cities; Trade and Craft (c.1200 – 1500)
3.1 Money and Currency
Introduction of Coins:
- Early Coins: In the early medieval times, local rulers made coins. Later, during the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals, governments started making their own money. Rulers like Iltutmish and Alauddin Khilji created silver coins called Tanka and smaller copper coins called Jital.
- Mughal Coins: Under the Mughals, especially Akbar, the currency system improved. Akbar made silver Rupees the main currency, and coins of different values were made. The silver Rupiya became popular for trade, even internationally.
- Paper Money: Akbar also tried using paper money called “Farman” for trade in some areas, but it didn’t work well and was later stopped.
Money in Daily Life:
- Money became essential for daily activities, moving away from bartering. Coins made trade easier, especially in cities with busy markets. This also helped businesses grow, especially for traders and artisans.
- Taxes: With coins, rulers could collect taxes more easily. This made payments to soldiers and officials simpler.
Effect on Trade:
- The use of money and standard coins boosted trade within India and beyond. As coins became trustworthy, trade routes expanded, linking places like the Deccan, Gangetic plains, and Rajputana with Central Asia, Persia, and Southeast Asia.
- Coins were used for trading goods like spices, textiles, gemstones, and precious metals.
3.2 Market Rules
Government’s Role in Markets:
- Rulers from the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire set up systems to manage markets and trade for stability and revenue.
- Market Oversight: Officials called Shahna checked markets to ensure fair trading, stop hoarding, and prevent cheating. For example, Alauddin Khilji set rules for pricing essential goods like grain.
- Standard Weights: The government made sure that weights and measures in markets were the same, which helped fair trading, especially for food.
Controlling Prices and Trade:
- Price Limits: During shortages, the government set price limits. For example, Alauddin Khilji set maximum prices for food to avoid hoarding during tough times.
- Trade Management: The government controlled what goods could move where to secure important items like salt, spices, and textiles. They supported long-distance trade by keeping currency stable and ensuring safety on trade routes.
- Taxes on Goods: Taxes were collected at cities and ports, helping the government earn money. Customs officers managed the flow of goods, with different taxes based on the item.
Markets and Trade Groups:
- Markets: Big cities had busy markets, usually near government centers or trade routes. Cities like Delhi, Lahore, Jaipur, Agra, and Kannauj had active marketplaces where goods were traded.
- Guilds: Merchant and craft groups managed economic activities. They set rules for quality and prices and provided support for members, including loans and solving disputes.
- Craft Guilds: In cities, craft guilds, such as those for weavers and metalworkers, controlled production and sales, ensuring a steady supply of goods.
3.3 Cities
Growth of Urban Areas:
- Urban Growth: From the 12th century, cities grew quickly. Places like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Bijapur became important centers for politics and trade.
- Delhi: As the capital of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughals, Delhi grew in population and services, boosting trade.
- Mughal Cities: The Mughal period saw more urban growth, with cities like Agra, Jaipur, and Fatehpur Sikri built to show the empire’s greatness, featuring planned streets and gardens.
City Planning and Services:
- City Design: Many cities were carefully planned. For example, Fatehpur Sikri had large areas for markets, mosques, and gardens. The grid layout made cities more organized.
- Public Services: Amenities like bathhouses, gardens, and canals were built for the growing population.
- Protection: Many cities, especially capitals, were protected by strong walls. Delhi and Agra had large fortifications.
- Water Systems: Advanced irrigation systems were created, especially by the Mughals, to provide water to cities.
Cities in Economic and Cultural Life:
- Trade Hubs: Cities were key for trading goods from various regions and had access to local and international markets.
- Cultural Sharing: Cities like Delhi and Agra became important for cultural sharing, with advancements in art, music, and education.
- Administrative Centers: Cities were also where rulers managed their governments, with royal courts and markets close together, centralizing power.
3.4 Trade and Craft
Trade Networks:
- Internal Trade: India had a strong internal trade network connecting all regions, moving goods like rice, wheat, textiles, and salt.
- International Trade: Maritime routes were vital for trade with Southeast Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, Africa, and Europe. The Indian Ocean and Silk Road helped exchange goods like spices and textiles.
- Trade with the West: Trade with Central Asia and Persia was important. Merchants brought silk and carpets to India, while Indian spices and textiles reached Middle Eastern and European markets.
Key Trade Goods:
- Textiles: Indian textiles, including cotton and silk, were highly valued. Regions like Bengal and Gujarat became major textile centers.
- Spices and Salt: Spices like pepper and turmeric were crucial exports. Salt was also a significant traded item.
- Gems and Metals: India was known for its gemstones and precious metals. The diamond mines of Golconda and the gem markets of Jaipur played a key role in this trade.
- Food Products: Rice, sugar, and grains were widely traded, especially from fertile Gangetic plains.
Growth of Craft Industries:
- Textile Manufacturing: The cotton and silk weaving industries expanded, with Gujarat and Bengal producing fine fabrics.
- Metal Production: India was famous for its iron and steel, especially Wootz steel used for swords. The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal emperors supported metal workshops.
- Pottery: The craft of pottery grew, with fine blue-and-white porcelain being widely exported, especially during the Mughal era.
Trade’s Influence on Society:
- Economic Growth: Wealth from trade and crafts led to prosperity in many kingdoms and cities, creating a rise in merchant and artisan classes.
- Social Mobility: Trade allowed merchants and skilled workers to improve their social status.
- Cultural Sharing: Trade networks promoted cultural exchanges that impacted art, architecture, food, and literature in India and beyond.
In summary, from c.1200 to 1500, there were major changes in money use, market rules, city growth, and trade and craft industries. The use of money and regulated markets spurred economic growth, and cities became key centers for trade, culture, and governance. India’s trade networks allowed for the exchange of valuable goods and shaped the social and economic landscape of the time.