In this post, notes of “Unit 1: Nations and Nationalism in the Nineteenth Century” from “DSC- 3: History of modern Europe” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
What is Nationalism?
Nationalism is the belief in the importance of a specific nation, focusing on its culture, identity, and interests. It gained popularity in the late 1700s and early 1800s in Europe, sparked by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Nationalism challenged old systems like monarchies and empires, helping to form modern countries.
People started to see their nation as a community that shares a history, language, culture, and sometimes religion.
Key Thinkers on Nationalism:
Several important thinkers contributed to ideas about nationalism in the 19th century:
- Johann Gottfried Herder: He believed that each nation has its own unique culture and spirit, which can be found in its traditions and language.
- Ernest Renan: He suggested that a nation is formed by people choosing to live together, not just by shared ethnicity or culture.
- Johann Gottlieb Fichte: He called for a strong German nation built on shared ethnicity, culture, and language.
- Giuseppe Mazzini: He was an Italian nationalist who believed nations had a divine purpose and should be led by democratic principles.
- Benedict Anderson: He described nations as “imagined communities,” where people feel connected through shared symbols like language and history.
Types of Nationalism:
Nationalism can take different forms:
- Cultural Nationalism: Focuses on preserving a nation’s culture, language, and traditions.
- Political Nationalism: Aims for self-rule and the creation of a nation-state.
- Ethnic Nationalism: Defines a nation by shared ethnicity and ancestry, often excluding others.
- Civic Nationalism: Focuses on shared values and citizenship, promoting inclusion regardless of ethnic background.
Influence of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars:
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars were crucial in spreading nationalist ideas in Europe. The principles of freedom and equality inspired people to seek nation-states based on shared identities, challenging old monarchies.
Role of Language, Culture, and Religion:
Language, culture, and religion are important in shaping national identity:
- Language: It is a key part of national identity and is often promoted by nationalist movements.
- Culture: Shared customs and traditions help unite people in a nation.
- Religion: It can define national identity but can also create divisions among different religious groups.
This summary provides a straightforward look at nationalism, its main ideas, important thinkers, and its historical context.
Nationalist Aspirations in Germany, Italy, and the Austro-Hungarian/Ottoman Empires
Germany
- Early German Nationalism:
In the early 1800s, people in German-speaking areas wanted to unite many independent states. The German Confederation (1815-1866) was a loose group of 39 states formed after the Napoleonic Wars. It helped develop the idea of a united Germany, though Austria and Prussia had their own interests that made this difficult. - The 1848 Revolutions:
The revolutions of 1848 in Europe greatly affected German nationalism. People wanted liberal reforms and a united Germany. The Frankfurt Assembly met to create a constitution for a united Germany, but it failed due to disagreements and resistance from Austria and Prussia. However, it showed that many wanted German unity. - Unification of Germany:
Otto von Bismarck, the Prime Minister of Prussia, was key in unifying Germany through clever politics and wars. He aimed to make Prussia the leading power in Germany and keep Austria out.- Danish War (1864):
Prussia and Austria fought Denmark to control Schleswig and Holstein. This war set the stage for later conflicts in the German Confederation. - Austro-Prussian War (1866):
Bismarck provoked Austria into war, and Prussia won, pushing Austria out of German affairs and forming the North German Confederation. - Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871):
Bismarck stirred up tensions with France to start this war. It brought northern and some southern German states together. After defeating France, the southern states joined the North German Confederation, and in 1871, Germany was unified under King Wilhelm I of Prussia.
- Danish War (1864):
- Prussia’s Role:
Prussia became the main force for unifying Germany, while Austria lost its influence. Prussia’s success in wars showed the strength of a centralized state, while Austria focused on its own empire. - Creation of the German Empire (1871):
The German Empire was officially formed in 1871 at Versailles, marking a major change in European power dynamics.
Italy
- Early Italian Nationalism:
In the 19th century, many Italians wanted to unite different Italian states. Secret groups like the Carbonari and Young Italy, founded by Giuseppe Mazzini, promoted Italian unity, with Young Italy pushing for a republic and the Carbonari favoring a constitutional monarchy. - The 1848 Revolutions:
Just like in Germany, 1848 brought revolutions in Italy where people called for a unified state and the end of foreign rule, especially from Austria. Though these revolts were mostly unsuccessful, they set the stage for future movements. - Unification of Italy (Risorgimento):
The unification, called the Risorgimento, was a slow process with key figures and battles.- Giuseppe Mazzini:
He inspired many with his ideas for a democratic Italy and founded Young Italy. - Count Camillo di Cavour:
As the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, he worked on alliances and wars to unite Italy under Piedmontese control. - Giuseppe Garibaldi:
A military leader known for unifying Italy, he led the famous Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, capturing southern Italy and aiding in the unification.
- Giuseppe Mazzini:
- Role of Piedmont-Sardinia:
Piedmont-Sardinia, led by King Victor Emmanuel II and Cavour, was crucial in uniting Italy, rallying other states to join. - Kingdom of Italy (1861):
The Kingdom of Italy was officially formed in 1861, with Victor Emmanuel II as king. The unification continued as regions like Venice and Rome were added later.
Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires
- Multinational Empires:
Both empires contained many different ethnic and cultural groups, leading to tensions as these groups sought independence or more rights. - Impact of Nationalism:
Nationalism weakened both empires. In Austria-Hungary, rising nationalist movements led to political issues and the empire’s collapse after World War I. In the Ottoman Empire, similar movements weakened control, leading to its disintegration. - The 1848 Revolutions:
The revolutions in Austria-Hungary led to nationalist uprisings, especially in Hungary, where Lajos Kossuth demanded independence. Although the revolution was suppressed, it was important for future Hungarian nationalism. - Key Nationalist Leaders:
- Hungary:
Lajos Kossuth led the Hungarian Revolution, seeking more rights. Though it failed, it set the stage for future independence efforts. - Czechs:
The Czech National Revival aimed to boost Czech culture and identity as part of wider Slavic nationalism. - Balkans:
Nationalist movements in the Balkans, influenced by Serbian and Greek nationalism, led to the Serbian Revolution and the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829), seeking freedom from Ottoman rule.
- Hungary:
- Decline of the Ottoman Empire:
The Greek War of Independence marked the start of the Ottoman Empire’s decline in the Balkans, with other nationalist movements emerging, supported by countries like Russia, Britain, and France.
This overview covers the nationalist movements in Germany, Italy, and the Austro-Hungarian/Ottoman Empires in the 19th century.
State and Politics in Post-Unification Germany / Italy
Germany
The Political Structure of the German Empire (1871-1918)
The German Empire was formed in 1871 and had a complicated political system with a mix of monarchy, federalism, and a parliament. The Kaiser (Emperor) and the Chancellor were key figures, while the Reichstag (parliament) and various political parties also played important roles.
- The Role of the Kaiser and the Chancellor:
The Kaiser was the leader of the country and had strong powers, including control over foreign affairs and the military. The Chancellor managed day-to-day government activities and was chosen by the Kaiser. Otto von Bismarck, the first Chancellor, greatly influenced Germany’s policies. - The Federal Structure and the Role of Individual States:
Germany was made up of different states, each with its own local government. Important states included Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Württemberg. While the central government in Berlin had much power, these states had their own authority, especially in areas like education and law. Prussia was the most powerful state and its king became the Kaiser. - The Reichstag and the Political Parties:
The Reichstag was the lower house of parliament and was elected by all men. It had some power to make laws, but the Kaiser and Chancellor had more control. The upper house, the Bundesrat, represented the states and could block decisions. Political parties included the Social Democratic Party (SPD), the Centre Party, and the National Liberals, with the SPD being the largest party by the late 1800s.
Bismarck’s Domestic Policies
- Kulturkampf (Conflict with the Catholic Church):
One of Bismarck’s main policies was the Kulturkampf, which aimed to reduce the Catholic Church’s power in Germany. This was in response to the Church’s declaration of papal infallibility in 1870. Bismarck introduced laws to limit the Church’s influence but eventually had to stop these efforts as the Catholic Centre Party had strong support. - Social Welfare Reforms and the Anti-Socialist Laws:
Bismarck introduced important social welfare reforms like health insurance (1883), accident insurance (1884), and old-age pensions (1889) to weaken support for socialism. Despite these reforms, he also passed Anti-Socialist Laws (1878) that banned socialist groups, but the SPD continued to grow.
Foreign Policy and the Role of Germany in European Politics
Bismarck’s foreign policy focused on diplomacy and building alliances to keep peace in Europe.
- He worked to isolate France to avoid a two-front war, forming alliances like the Triple Alliance (1882) with Austria-Hungary and Italy.
- He also made a friendly agreement with Russia through the Reinsurance Treaty (1887).
- After Bismarck was dismissed in 1890, his successors changed many of his strategies, leading to the start of World War I.
Italy
The Political Structure of the Kingdom of Italy
After unification, Italy had trouble establishing a stable government. The King, Victor Emmanuel II, held much power, but the Prime Minister and Parliament were also important.
- The Role of the King and the Prime Minister:
The King was the head of state and could appoint the Prime Minister, who led the government. The King mostly had a symbolic role but could call elections. The Prime Minister worked with the cabinet to run the government. - The Parliamentary System and the Role of Political Parties:
Italy had a Parliament with two houses: the elected Chamber of Deputies and the appointed Senate. Early on, political parties were weak and often changed, leading to unstable governments. Key parties included the Liberals, the Socialists, and regional parties, but corruption and lack of loyalty were issues.
Challenges of National Integration and Regional Differences
- The North-South Divide (Questione Meridionale):
A big challenge was the Questione Meridionale, where the North was more developed and industrialized while the South remained poor and rural. This gap made it hard to unify the country. - The Role of the Church and the Conflict with the Papacy (Roman Question):
The Roman Question was a dispute between the new Italian state and the Catholic Church, which didn’t accept losing the Papal States. This conflict continued until the Lateran Treaty of 1929 resolved the issue, but the Church remained influential in politics.
Social and Economic Reforms in Post-Unification Italy
Italy faced many social and economic problems after unification. There were attempts to modernize, but progress was slow. Key reforms included:
- Education: The government worked to improve literacy, especially in the South.
- Infrastructure: Efforts were made to build better roads and railways, mainly in the North.
- Land Reforms: Some attempts were made to improve farming and land distribution, but these were limited and not very effective in the South.
Foreign Policy and the Role of Italy in European Politics
Italy’s foreign policy aimed to strengthen its position in Europe and expand its influence.
- The Triple Alliance: Italy joined the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, but had conflicts with Austria over land.
- Colonial Expansion: Italy tried to become a colonial power, including a failed attempt to conquer Ethiopia (1895-1896) and seeking colonies in North Africa.
- The Role in World War I: Italy joined World War I in 1915 on the side of the Allies, hoping to gain land, which would impact its future politics and lead to the rise of Fascism.
This summarizes the political systems and major issues in post-unification Germany and Italy.