In this post, notes of “Unit 3: Europe Between the World Wars” from “DSC- 3: History of modern Europe” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
Fascism: Historiographical Debates
What is Fascism?
Fascism is a strict political system that started in Europe in the early 1900s, especially after World War I. It has some main features:
- Total Control: Fascist governments want total power over the country and its people, putting all authority in one party or leader, shutting down opposition, and managing the economy, media, and culture.
- Strong National Pride: Fascism focuses on extreme pride in the nation, often leading to the exclusion or mistreatment of minority groups. It values the nation above all and tries to reclaim or grow its land.
- Opposition to Communism: Fascism is against communism and socialism, seeing them as threats to private property and traditional values. The fear of a leftist revolution helped fascism gain support.
- Emphasis on Military: Fascist governments value military strength and often celebrate war as a way to achieve national greatness, using the military to control people and expand territories.
How Fascism Started and Grew
- After World War I: Europe faced political and economic chaos after the war. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) punished Germany harshly, leading to economic problems and political strife. Italy also faced tough economic times and was unhappy with war outcomes. These conditions made people open to radical ideas like fascism, which promised stability and strength.
- Fear of Communism: The Russian Revolution in 1917 and the spread of communist ideas increased fears of a leftist uprising. Many saw fascism as a way to stop communism from gaining power during these unstable times.
- Key Leaders:
- Benito Mussolini (Italy): Mussolini rose to power in Italy in 1922, showing how fascism could attract various social groups. His leadership was crucial in shaping Italian fascism.
- Adolf Hitler (Germany): Hitler gained power by tapping into public discontent with the Weimar Republic and economic struggles, especially after the Great Depression. He promised to restore the nation and promote Aryan supremacy through the Nazi Party.
Important Thinkers on Fascism
- Ernst Nolte: He believed fascism arose as a response to the fear of communism and should be seen in the context of 20th-century political struggles.
- Renzo De Felice: An Italian historian who studied Mussolini, he argued that his fascism was a practical form of authoritarianism, not a strict totalitarianism.
- Robert Paxton: He viewed fascism as a changing process influenced by historical events and social movements, rather than a fixed ideology.
Comparing Italian and German Fascism
- Italian Fascism: Under Mussolini, it focused on restoring Italy’s greatness through authoritarianism, nationalism, and expansion, like invading Ethiopia.
- German Fascism (Nazism): Hitler’s version centered on racial purity, Aryan superiority, and the need for more living space, leading to extreme anti-Semitism and the Holocaust.
Both regimes were authoritarian, militaristic, and focused on national pride.
Different Views on Fascism
- Marxist Views: They see fascism as a way for the rich to fight against working-class movements, claiming it was used to maintain class inequality.
- Liberal Views: They focus on the dictatorship and the loss of democracy in fascist regimes, viewing fascism as a response to the chaos of the time.
- Revisionist Views: Thinkers like Paxton argue that fascism was more complex, shaped by social movements and existing unrest.
Effects of Fascism on Society and Culture
Fascism had significant impacts on society and culture:
- Social Effects: Fascist regimes controlled all aspects of life, promoting strict social hierarchies and using propaganda to shape public opinion.
- Cultural Effects: They influenced art and education, controlling cultural expressions to reflect their ideals. Mussolini used art to show power, while the Nazis controlled artistic expression to align with their beliefs.
- Human Cost: Fascism caused immense suffering. The Holocaust led to the deaths of six million Jews and millions of others. Mussolini’s regime also caused suffering in places like Ethiopia and the Balkans.
Nature of the State in Fascist Italy / Nazi Germany
Fascist Italy
Political Structure and Governance
- The Role of the Duce (Benito Mussolini):
Mussolini, known as the Duce (leader), was the main leader in fascist Italy. He was seen as a strong leader who would bring the Italian people together and make Italy great again. Mussolini had complete power and controlled all parts of the government, society, and military. His image as a charismatic leader was an important part of the government’s messaging. - The Fascist Party and State Institutions:
The Fascist Party was the only legal party in Italy, getting rid of any political opposition. Mussolini’s regime took control away from traditional institutions like the monarchy and military, placing them under fascist control. Fascism aimed to align state institutions with its beliefs and created a system where the state, party, and military worked closely together. The economy was organized into corporations run by the state. - Propaganda and Control of Media:
The fascist government tightly controlled the media to promote its political messages. Mussolini recognized the influence of media on public opinion and ensured that the state’s narrative of strength and unity was prominent. Newspapers, radio, and films were censored or managed by the government to support the regime’s goals.
Economic Policies and Corporatism
- State Intervention and Corporate State:
Mussolini wanted to create a “corporate state” where different economic sectors like agriculture and industry were organized into corporations. While these corporations seemed to represent both workers and employers, the state ultimately controlled them, making sure fascist ideas were followed. This system aimed to reduce class conflict by promoting cooperation between workers and employers, but it mainly benefited the state and large businesses. - Public Works Programs and Economic Autarky:
Mussolini started big public works projects, like draining marshes and building infrastructure, to lower unemployment and boost the economy. He also promoted self-sufficiency to make Italy less reliant on foreign goods, encouraging local production.
Social Policies and Impact on Society
- Education and Youth Organizations:
Fascist Italy aimed to teach young people fascist ideas through educational reforms. The regime created youth groups like the “Opera Nazionale Balilla” to build loyalty to the state and Mussolini, shaping young Italians into future fascists. - Role of Women and Family Policies:
Mussolini encouraged women to be mothers and homemakers. The regime promoted traditional gender roles, urging women to marry and have children to strengthen Italy. Women were mostly kept out of political and military roles, but Mussolini allowed them to work in some areas, especially during wartime. - Relationship with the Catholic Church:
Mussolini had a rocky start with the Catholic Church, but the Lateran Treaty (1929) improved relations. The treaty recognized Catholicism as Italy’s official religion and gave the Vatican control over Vatican City. In return, the Church supported Mussolini’s regime, becoming an important ally.
Nazi Germany
Political Structure and Governance
- The Role of the Führer (Adolf Hitler):
Hitler, as the Führer, was the absolute leader of Nazi Germany. His rule was based on having total power. Hitler was at the center of the Nazi regime, and the government was built around his authority. He aimed to centralize control and eliminate any dissent. - The Nazi Party and State Institutions:
The Nazi Party was the only political party in Germany, and all state institutions were under its control. The Nazi Party managed every aspect of public life, including the military, police, economy, and education. The Reichstag (parliament) lost its significance after the Reichstag Fire Decree (1933) limited civil rights. The SS (secret police) and Gestapo enforced Nazi beliefs and removed “undesirable” people from society. - Propaganda, Censorship, and Control of Media:
Nazi Germany used propaganda to spread its ideas and control public opinion. Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, managed the censorship of media, art, and literature. The Nazis praised Hitler and the regime while attacking Jews, communists, and others. Radio, films, and public events were used to spread Nazi messages.
Economic Policies and Autarky
- Four-Year Plan and Rearmament:
Under Hitler, Germany enacted strong economic policies to prepare for war and achieve self-sufficiency. The Four-Year Plan (1936) focused on building up Germany’s military and reducing reliance on foreign goods by boosting local production. This was part of the regime’s goal to expand militarily. - State-Controlled Economy and Public Works Programs:
The Nazi economy was heavily controlled by the government, which directed major industries and public projects. The regime worked on improving Germany’s infrastructure, creating jobs through large projects like the Autobahn (highway system). These actions aimed to lower unemployment and prepare for war.
Social Policies and Impact on Society
- Education and Hitler Youth:
The education system in Nazi Germany was designed to teach children Nazi ideas. The Hitler Youth group was key in this process, training boys to be soldiers and loyal to Hitler. Girls were taught to focus on motherhood and traditional roles. - Role of Women and Family Policies:
Nazis promoted traditional roles for women, encouraging them to be wives and mothers. The regime offered financial incentives for having large families. Women were mostly kept out of public life and focused on home duties. - Racial Policies and the Persecution of Minorities:
One of the most terrible parts of Nazi policy was its racist beliefs. The Nazis introduced the “Nuremberg Laws” (1935), which took citizenship away from Jews and separated them from society. Jews, Roma people, disabled individuals, and others labeled as “racially inferior” faced harsh persecution, leading to the Holocaust.
Comparison of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany
- Political Structure:
Both fascist Italy and Nazi Germany were controlled by a single leader (Mussolini and Hitler), but Nazi Germany had a more extreme level of control. Hitler’s power overshadowed traditional institutions much more than Mussolini’s did. - Ideology:
Both regimes focused on nationalism and authoritarianism, but Nazi Germany was strongly racist, promoting Aryan superiority and anti-Semitism. Italian fascism was more about nationalism and corporatism, and while Mussolini adopted some racist policies later, they were not as central as in Nazi Germany. - Economic Policies:
Both regimes aimed for self-sufficiency and state control of the economy. Italy’s corporate state aimed to reduce class conflict, while Germany focused on military expansion and preparing for war through the Four-Year Plan. - Social and Cultural Impact:
Both regimes controlled education and gender roles, but Nazi Germany’s racial policies were much harsher, resulting in the Holocaust. Mussolini’s policies aimed to build a strong Italian identity, while Hitler’s regime focused on racial purity and the persecution of Jews and other minorities.
Origins of the Second World War
Long-term Causes and Background
- Treaty of Versailles and Its Impact:
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) ended World War I but created problems that led to World War II. It imposed heavy payments on Germany, took away its land, and limited its military. This caused economic struggles and anger in Germany, allowing groups like the Nazis to gain support. Adolf Hitler rose to power by promising to undo the treaty and make Germany strong again. - Economic Depression and Political Instability:
The worldwide economic depression that started in 1929 hurt many countries in Europe and helped totalitarian governments rise. The Great Depression caused high unemployment and poverty, making people unhappy with their democratic governments. In countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, citizens began to support strong leaders who promised to bring stability and improve the economy. This chaos made it easier for these leaders to push for expansion. - Rise of Totalitarian Regimes:
The economic crisis and discontent with democracy led to totalitarian regimes taking control in Europe and Asia. In Italy, Mussolini’s fascism gained power in 1922. In Germany, Hitler’s Nazis grew popular in the 1930s, and Japan saw military leaders gain influence. These governments rejected democracy and focused on nationalism and military strength, increasing global tensions.
Aggressive Foreign Policies and Expansionism
- Italian Expansionism and Invasion of Ethiopia:
Mussolini aimed to create a “New Roman Empire” and invaded Ethiopia in 1935 to expand Italy’s colonies. This act broke international rules and was condemned by the League of Nations, but no strong action was taken against Italy. The League’s weakness encouraged other fascist nations to continue their expansion. - German Expansionism and Occupation of the Rhineland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia:
- Occupation of the Rhineland (1936): Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland, breaking the Treaty of Versailles. France and Britain did not respond, marking the start of their policy of appeasement and encouraging Hitler’s further actions.
- Anschluss and the Annexation of Austria (1938): Hitler aimed to unite all ethnic Germans and annexed Austria in March 1938. This move was popular in Austria and faced little resistance from other countries.
- Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1939): Hitler demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, and the Munich Agreement allowed this in exchange for peace. However, Hitler soon took the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, showing the failure of appeasement.
Key Events Leading to the War
- Munich Agreement and the Policy of Appeasement:
The Munich Agreement (1938) allowed Germany to take the Sudetenland, hoping to prevent further conflict. However, this approach failed, as Hitler continued to act aggressively, seeing the lack of resistance as weakness. - Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (1939):
In August 1939, Hitler and Stalin signed a pact to not attack each other, which shocked the world. This deal allowed Germany to invade Poland without fearing a Soviet attack, setting the stage for the war. - Invasion of Poland and the Outbreak of War (1939):
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, which officially started World War II. The invasion was brutal, leading Britain and France to declare war on Germany on September 3, 1939. This invasion marked the peak of years of German aggression.
Role of Major Powers and Their Foreign Policies
- Britain and France: Appeasement and Reactions to Aggression:
Britain and France initially tried to avoid conflict with Germany due to the memories of World War I. However, after Germany invaded Poland, they realized they had to take action and declared war, but it was too late to stop the full-scale war. - Soviet Union: Non-Aggression Pact and Strategic Goals:
The Soviet Union wanted to protect itself and signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact to avoid a German attack while preparing for any potential conflict. After Poland was invaded, the USSR took the eastern part of Poland, as agreed in the pact. - United States: Isolationism and Initial Neutrality:
The United States wanted to stay out of European conflicts after World War I and had laws to prevent involvement. However, as the war escalated, the U.S. began to support the Allies. The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, finally led to U.S. entry into the war.
Historiographical Debates and Interpretations
- Traditionalist vs. Revisionist Perspectives:
Some historians believe that Nazi Germany was mainly to blame for starting the war due to Hitler’s aggressive actions, while others argue that Western powers were also responsible for allowing Hitler to expand through appeasement. - Role of Economic Factors and Ideological Conflicts:
Some historians emphasize that economic issues, especially the Great Depression, helped totalitarian regimes rise and act aggressively. Others focus on the ideological battles between fascism, communism, and democracy that contributed to the war. - Influence of Individual Leaders and Their Decisions:
Historians also discuss the impact of leaders like Hitler on the war. Some see his actions as driven by personal ambition, while others believe broader issues like economic problems and failed diplomacy were more significant. The choices of leaders like Chamberlain and Stalin are also important in these discussions.