In this post, notes of “Unit 4: Alternative Trends in National Movement” from “DSC- 2: History of India – VIII: c. 1857 – 1950” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.
Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement
Early Life and Education
- Birth and Background (1891):
Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was born on April 14, 1891, in a Dalit family in Mhow, Madhya Pradesh. His family belonged to the Maher caste, which was seen as untouchable in India. This background influenced his future work for Dalit rights. - Education Abroad:
Ambedkar was a smart student who faced discrimination due to his caste. Despite this, he did well in school and received a scholarship to Elphinstone College in Bombay (Mumbai). He later went to the United States, where he earned a master’s degree in economics from Columbia University in 1915 and a D.Sc. from the London School of Economics in 1923. His education abroad shaped his ideas and political views.
Ideas and Beliefs
- Experiences with Untouchability:
Ambedkar’s experiences with untouchability as a child influenced his views on caste and justice. He faced discrimination in school, which motivated him to work for the empowerment of oppressed communities. - Fight for Justice and Equality:
Ambedkar believed in social justice, equality, and ending the caste system. He thought that Dalits and other marginalized groups could improve their lives through education, economic independence, and political involvement.
Political Involvement
- 1.1.3.1 Organizations
- Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924):
In 1924, Ambedkar started the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha to promote education and welfare for Dalits and other oppressed groups. The Sabha aimed to help them overcome social discrimination.
- Samata Sainik Dal (1924):
This organization was formed to fight against social injustice and secure civil rights for Dalits. It promoted equality in all areas of social life.
- Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924):
- 1.1.3.2 Legislative Role
- Ambedkar became a member of the Bombay Legislative Council in 1926. He used this position to advocate for the rights of Dalits and marginalized communities.
Important Movements and Actions
- 1.1.4.1 Mahad Satyagraha (1927)
In 1927, Ambedkar led the Dalit community in Mahad to demand their right to use public water tanks. This movement challenged the social rules that denied Dalits basic rights and increased awareness about their struggles. - 1.1.4.2 Temple Entry Movements
- Kalaram Temple Entry Satyagraha (1930):
In 1930, Ambedkar led a peaceful protest for Dalits to enter the Kalaram Temple in Nasik, which showed the larger fight for social equality.
Advocacy for Separate Representation
- 1.1.5.1 Round Table Conferences
Ambedkar represented Dalit interests at the Round Table Conferences in London from 1930-1932. He argued for separate electorates for Dalits to ensure they could elect their own leaders. - 1.1.5.2 Poona Pact (1932)
The Poona Pact was an agreement between Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi after Gandhi protested against separate electorates for Dalits. They agreed on joint electorates with reserved seats for Dalits, which was a step toward political representation.
Legacy and Influence
- Drafting the Indian Constitution
Ambedkar is known as the main author of the Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950. He included important provisions to protect the rights of Dalits and marginalized groups, like banning untouchability and providing affirmative action. - Social Reform and Education
Ambedkar worked to promote education for Dalits and supported women’s rights. His focus on education laid the groundwork for many reform movements in India. - Conversion to Buddhism (1956)
In 1956, Ambedkar converted to Buddhism with many followers to protest the discrimination faced by Dalits in Hinduism. This marked an important moment in the Dalit movement.
Impact of Ambedkar on Indian Society
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s work has greatly affected Indian society, especially in promoting social justice and equality. His fight against the caste system and for the rights of Dalits has inspired many activists, and his influence remains strong today.
Dravidian Movements
Origins and Context
- Social Situation in South India:
In the early 1900s, South India, especially Tamil Nadu, had a strict social order with the Brahmin community having a lot of social, political, and economic power. The caste system supported the Brahmins’ control over others. The Dravidian movement started to fight against this control and promote fairness for non-Brahmins, especially those from lower castes. - Response to Brahmin Control:
The Dravidian movement mainly reacted against the power of Brahmins in society. It was believed that Brahmins controlled education, politics, and religion, leaving non-Brahmins with fewer rights and chances, especially in Tamil Nadu. The movement aimed to support the identity and rights of Dravidians, who are the people of South India not part of the Brahmin group.
Justice Party (South Indian Liberal Federation)
- Formation (1916)
The Justice Party, also called the South Indian Liberal Federation (SILF), was started in 1916 by leaders like Dr. C. Natesa Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P. Thyagaraya Chetty. The party aimed to represent non-Brahmin interests and fight against Brahmin political control. It was formed because non-Brahmins were often left out of political decisions during colonial rule. - Goals and Beliefs
The main goal of the Justice Party was to give non-Brahmins a voice in politics and ensure social fairness. They wanted to tackle the social and educational gaps caused by Brahmin control. The party pushed for equal chances for everyone, especially in government jobs and education. They focused on social equality for non-Brahmins, who had been treated unfairly in the past. - Achievements
- Job Reservations:
A key success of the Justice Party was getting job reservations for non-Brahmins in government jobs to create job opportunities and lessen Brahmin control in public positions.
- Governance of Madras Presidency (1920-1937):
The Justice Party ran the Madras Presidency from 1920 to 1937. During this time, they made several social changes and worked to empower non-Brahmin communities, marking a big change in South Indian politics.
- Job Reservations:
Self-Respect Movement
- Started by E.V. Ramasamy ‘Periyar’ (1925)
The Self-Respect Movement was started by E.V. Ramasamy, known as Periyar, in 1925. He was a reformer who opposed the caste system, religious traditions, and Brahmin control. The movement aimed to promote self-respect and social equality and wanted to end the caste system, which Periyar thought was a major problem for Tamil society. - Social Changes
- Against Caste System and Superstitions:
The Self-Respect Movement strongly opposed the caste system, which Periyar saw as the main cause of social inequality. It wanted to end untouchability and create a society where people were judged by their skills, not their caste. The movement also challenged superstitions, especially in Hinduism, and promoted logical thinking.
- Support for Women’s Rights and Inter-Caste Marriages:
The movement worked for women’s rights and pushed for changes regarding gender issues. Periyar fought for women’s dignity and opposed practices like child marriage and dowry. The movement also supported inter-caste marriages, encouraging love and respect over caste restrictions.
- Against Caste System and Superstitions:
- Publications and Promotion
- Magazines: Kudi Arasu, Revolt:
Periyar used magazines to share the ideas of the Self-Respect Movement. Two key magazines, Kudi Arasu and Revolt, helped spread messages of equality and against Brahmin control. These magazines were important in gaining public support for the movement.
Dravidar Kazhagam and Beyond
- Change to Dravidar Kazhagam (1944)
In 1944, the Self-Respect Movement became the Dravidar Kazhagam (DK), a political and social group led by Periyar. The DK aimed to create a separate Dravidian state for Tamil speakers, believing they had a unique culture and identity different from the rest of India. - Influence on Later Political Parties
- Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK):
The DK influenced the creation of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a major political party in Tamil Nadu. Founded by C.N. Annadurai in 1949, the DMK continued to fight for social justice and Dravidian identity, becoming a powerful force in Tamil Nadu politics.
- Impact on Tamil Nadu Politics:
The Dravidian movements, especially the DMK, significantly changed Tamil Nadu politics. They challenged the Congress Party and Brahmin dominance, promoting a new political focus on regional identity, social justice, and empowering non-Brahmins. The Dravidian ideology still plays an important role in Tamil Nadu politics today, influencing policies on caste, language, and social welfare.
- Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK):
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) and Revolutionary Movements
Formation of HSRA
Background and Inspiration
- Influence of Russian Revolution (1917):
The Russian Revolution in 1917 inspired many nationalists in India. The success of the Bolsheviks in taking down the Russian government encouraged Indian revolutionaries to fight back against British rule. They wanted to create a fair and equal society, which motivated the formation of the HSRA. - Disenchantment with Non-Violent Methods:
By the 1920s, many young nationalists were unhappy with peaceful protests led by Mahatma Gandhi. They felt that quicker action was needed to end British control over India. This led to the creation of groups like the HSRA, which aimed to use violence to fight against British rule.
Founding Members
- Chandrashekhar Azad:
Chandrashekhar Azad was a key member of the HSRA and was known for his bravery. He helped recruit new members and plan revolutionary actions. He became famous for escaping a police shootout in 1929 and vowed never to be captured by the British. - Bhagat Singh:
Bhagat Singh is the most well-known member of the HSRA. He inspired many young people with his revolutionary ideas and was committed to fighting British rule. His actions, including a famous bombing, led to his execution, making him a hero for India’s independence. - Sukhdev Thapar:
Sukhdev Thapar was an important member of the HSRA and worked closely with Bhagat Singh. He was involved in revolutionary activities and was executed in 1931 for his role in killing a British police officer. His death, along with Bhagat Singh’s, had a strong impact on the freedom movement. - Rajguru:
Rajguru was also part of the group that killed the British police officer J.P. Saunders. He believed strongly in fighting for India’s freedom and was executed with Bhagat Singh and Sukhdev. His sacrifice inspired many others to join the revolutionary cause.
Objectives and Ideology
- Overthrow of British Rule through Armed Revolution:
The main goal of the HSRA was to violently remove British rule from India. They believed that only armed struggle could lead to freedom, unlike the Congress party, which preferred peaceful protests. - Establishment of a Socialist Republic in India:
The HSRA wanted India to be a socialist republic where everyone had equal rights and opportunities. They aimed to end social inequalities and create a government that served the needs of the people, especially the working class.
Name Evolution
- From Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) to HSRA (1928):
The HSRA started as the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) in 1924, founded by leaders like Ram Prasad Bismil. After some members were arrested and executed in 1927, the group was reorganized in 1928 under leaders like Bhagat Singh and renamed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) to show a stronger commitment to socialist ideas. This change marked a shift to a more focused and radical approach in their fight against British rule.
Key Activities and Actions
Kakori Conspiracy Case (1925)
- Train Robbery to Fund Revolutionary Activities:
The Kakori Conspiracy was an important event for the HSRA. In August 1925, a group of revolutionaries, including Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqulla Khan, planned a train robbery near Kakori, a town in Uttar Pradesh. They aimed to steal money from a train carrying British government funds to support their revolutionary work. The robbery was well-planned, and it also aimed to show that Indians could fight back against British rule. They succeeded in stealing the money, but many members were later arrested, leading to serious consequences for the HSRA. - Arrests and Martyrdom of Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan:
After the train robbery, several revolutionaries were caught, including Bismil and Ashfaqulla Khan. Even though the British tried to stop the movement, these leaders continued to inspire many people to resist. Bismil and Khan were sentenced to death, along with others involved in the plot. Their execution in 1927 made them heroes in the fight for independence and increased support for revolutionary efforts across India.
Saunders’ Assassination (1928)
- Retaliation for Lala Lajpat Rai’s Death:
A key event in HSRA history was the assassination of J.P. Saunders, a British police officer, in December 1928. This was a response to the death of Lala Lajpat Rai, a well-known nationalist leader who was beaten by the police during a protest. He died from his injuries shortly after. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were very upset by his death and decided to take revenge on Saunders, who was involved in the violence. - Execution of British Police Officer J.P. Saunders:
Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev planned the assassination of J.P. Saunders because they believed he was responsible for Lajpat Rai’s death. On December 17, 1928, they shot and killed Saunders in Lahore. Although this act did not fully achieve its goal, it was a crucial moment in the revolutionary movement and connected Bhagat Singh to the HSRA’s fight against British rule. This also led to Bhagat Singh’s later involvement in a bombing at the Central Legislative Assembly.
Central Legislative Assembly Bombing (1929)
- Protest Against Public Safety Bill and Trade Disputes Bill:
On April 8, 1929, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt bombed the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. The bombing was not meant to kill anyone, but to protest against the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill, which were seen as harmful to workers and beneficial to British control. The Public Safety Bill aimed to limit people’s freedoms, and the Trade Disputes Bill restricted workers’ rights. The bombing was a way to fight against British policies that hurt the rights of Indians. - Slogans: “Inquilab Zindabad” (Long Live the Revolution):
During the bombing, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt shouted the slogan “Inquilab Zindabad,” which means “Long Live the Revolution.” This slogan became a rallying cry for the revolutionary movement and represented their fight against British rule. Bhagat Singh believed that revolution was the only way to free India, and many young Indians were inspired by his bravery. - Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt’s Arrest:
After the bombing, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were arrested. Even in jail, they used their trial to share their revolutionary ideas. The trial received a lot of attention, and Bhagat Singh spoke about socialism and the need to end British rule. His bravery and clear arguments during the trial made him a leading voice in the Indian revolutionary movement.
Hunger Strikes in Jail
- Demand for Better Conditions for Political Prisoners:
While in prison, Bhagat Singh and his fellow inmates were treated badly by the British. The jails were in poor condition, and political prisoners faced harsh treatment. In response, Bhagat Singh and others went on hunger strikes to demand better conditions. They wanted better food, fair treatment for political prisoners, and to be treated as prisoners of war instead of common criminals. - Nationwide Support and Awareness:
The hunger strikes caught the attention of people across India, and their demands for better treatment resonated with the public. The strikes led to protests nationwide and highlighted the situation of political prisoners under British rule. Bhagat Singh and his comrades’ determination during the hunger strikes made them symbols of the freedom struggle and inspired many young Indians to join the revolutionary movement.
Trials and Martyrdom
Lahore Conspiracy Case
- Legal Proceedings Against HSRA Members:
The Lahore Conspiracy Case was an important trial for members of the HSRA, especially Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev. It started after the killing of J.P. Saunders in December 1928, which was done by the revolutionaries as revenge for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai. The British authorities held the trial to punish the revolutionaries and control the growing desire for Indian independence.
The prosecution claimed that the HSRA members planned to kill Saunders and were part of a larger plot to end British rule through violence. However, the revolutionaries used the trial to show British oppression and share their ideas for change. The trial became a sign of resistance against colonial rule, with the accused acting as martyrs for India’s freedom.
- Open Courtroom Statements by Bhagat Singh:
Bhagat Singh’s words during the trial showed his beliefs and passion for revolution. He used the trial to criticize British rule and call for a socialist revolution in India. In court, Bhagat Singh said he was not guilty of conspiracy and murder, but guilty of fighting against an unfair system. He rejected the British legal system, which he saw as a tool of oppression, and advocated for a people’s revolution. His strong and clear statements inspired many nationalists who admired his bravery. He also famously said, “I am not a terrorist. I am a revolutionary.”
Execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev (1931)
- Impact on National Consciousness:
The execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev on March 23, 1931, had a huge impact on the Indian people’s feelings and marked a key moment in the fight for independence. Even with large protests, pleas for mercy, and international outrage, the British government went ahead with the executions, hoping to stop the revolutionary movement. Their young age and the quick trial caused anger across India and energized the freedom movement.
Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were seen as martyrs who sacrificed their lives for India’s freedom. Their deaths inspired many young people to join the independence struggle. The idea of martyrdom became a symbol of the sacrifices needed for freedom, and their legacy lived on in the hearts of many Indians.
- Inspiration for Future Generations:
The execution of these three revolutionaries left a lasting impact on India’s freedom movement. Bhagat Singh’s beliefs, especially his vision for a socialist India and support for armed revolution, inspired many young people and freedom fighters. His writings, brave stance against colonialism, and commitment to justice made him a hero.
Additionally, their martyrdom changed how people thought about India’s political struggle. The younger generation in the 1930s and 1940s started to see the revolutionary movement as a crucial part of the fight for independence, leading to more radical actions across India. Bhagat Singh’s slogan “Inquilab Zindabad” (Long Live the Revolution) became a symbol of the fight for freedom and justice that resonated with the whole country.
The execution also highlighted the limits of non-violent resistance, causing some to question Gandhi’s methods and think about the role of direct action and revolution in gaining independence. This change in thinking contributed to the growth of more militant and radical movements among the youth as India moved toward independence in 1947.
Legacy of Revolutionary Movements
Influence on Youth and Students
- Impact on Young Indians:
The revolutionary movements, especially the actions of the HSRA and the sacrifices of leaders like Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev, greatly influenced young people in India. Their bravery and commitment to fight for independence inspired many young Indians who were frustrated with the slow pace of peaceful protests. The ideas of armed struggle, national pride, and justice appealed to students and youth across the country.
Young people viewed Bhagat Singh as a hero against British rule. His actions and writings encouraged them to take a stronger stand in the independence movement, pushing them to act against colonial rule and support social justice. The slogan “Inquilab Zindabad” (Long Live the Revolution) became a rallying cry for the youth, and the revolutionary movements created a strong sense of nationalism among students eager to join the fight for freedom.
Critique and Appreciation
- Debate Over Methods:
While groups like the HSRA were admired for their bravery, they also faced criticism for their use of violence. Some questioned whether violence was the right way to achieve independence. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated for non-violence, argued against the methods used by revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh. Gandhi believed that peaceful resistance was the best way to gain freedom and was concerned that violence could harm the larger movement.
Critics also doubted the chances of success for armed rebellion. Some felt that the revolutionaries acted alone and lacked support from the general public, while others worried that their actions might turn some people away from the cause. Although the HSRA’s tactics drew attention, they were sometimes seen as divisive within the broader fight for independence.
- Honoring Their Sacrifice:
Despite the debate, the dedication and sacrifice of revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were widely respected. Their deaths made them lasting symbols of India’s struggle for freedom. Even those who disagreed with their methods recognized their deep commitment to independence and the sacrifices they made. Bhagat Singh’s strong beliefs, even in the face of death, made him a significant figure in the country’s history.
Over time, people began to appreciate the contributions of the revolutionary movement more. The bravery and ideals of figures like Bhagat Singh inspired future leaders and activists. Recognizing their sacrifices helped keep the spirit of revolution alive as India moved toward independence.
Revolutionary Literature
- Pamphlets: “The Philosophy of the Bomb”:
A key part of the revolutionary movement was sharing literature to spread their ideas and gain support. One well-known pamphlet by Bhagat Singh and the HSRA was “The Philosophy of the Bomb.” In this pamphlet, Bhagat Singh explained his views on using violence as a tool for change. He justified violent actions against the British as a way to highlight India’s struggle for independence and inspire people to fight against colonial rule.
The pamphlet also discussed the idea that the fight for independence was part of a bigger global movement against oppression. Bhagat Singh’s writing added depth to the revolutionary movement, linking it to the worldwide fight for justice and equality.
- Writings of Bhagat Singh: “Why I am an Atheist”:
Bhagat Singh also explored ideas about religion and belief through his writings. His essay “Why I am an Atheist,” written during his time in prison, critically examined the role of religion in society. He argued that religion often kept people submissive under unfair conditions. This critique was bold for his time, as he rejected long-standing religious beliefs in Indian society.
In his essay, Bhagat Singh emphasized the importance of reason and science over blind faith. He believed that the freedom movement should be based on rational and secular ideas to achieve justice and equality, viewing religion as an obstacle to progress. This essay became one of his most popular works and showed his deep engagement with the social and political issues of his time.
These points about the legacy of revolutionary movements show their significant impact on India’s fight for independence, especially in inspiring youth, sparking important discussions about resistance methods, and contributing to revolutionary thinking through literature.
Ghadar Movement, Singh Sabha, and the Akali Movement
The Ghadar Movement
Origins Abroad
- Formation by Indian Immigrants in USA and Canada (1913):
The Ghadar Movement started in 1913 by Indian immigrants in the US and Canada, mainly Sikh workers. These immigrants faced harsh treatment and unfairness, which pushed them to fight for India’s freedom. The movement began in California and Vancouver and included many Indians, like Sikhs, Muslims, and Hindus, all wanting to end British rule in India.
The Ghadar Party was created because Indian immigrants felt isolated and oppressed in North America. Leaders like Lala Hardayal, Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna, and Kartar Singh Sarabha wanted to organize a revolution in India. Their experiences and wish for independence made them support a strong fight against colonialism.
- Key Figures: Lala Hardayal, Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna:
Lala Hardayal was the main leader of the Ghadar Party and shaped its goals. He believed that armed struggle was necessary to end British rule and encouraged Indians abroad to join the fight through his speeches and writings.
Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna helped build the movement’s structure and gathered support from the Sikh community. He and other leaders wanted to inspire Indians everywhere to rise up against British rule.
Objectives
- Armed Revolt Against British Rule:
The main goal of the Ghadar Movement was to start a violent fight against British rule. They aimed to get Indian soldiers in the British Army and Indian immigrants to join a big uprising. The Ghadar Party thought that only through armed revolution could India gain its freedom.
The leaders wanted to create an immediate uprising by working with Indian nationalists in India. They planned to form a government outside India and encourage a national rebellion, especially recruiting Indian soldiers around the world. Their radical approach was different from other peaceful movements in India.
- Magazine “Ghadar” as a Tool for Propaganda:
The Ghadar Party used the magazine “Ghadar” to spread their revolutionary ideas. Launched in 1913, it was printed in Punjabi, Hindi, and Urdu, making it easy for many people to read. The magazine called for armed resistance and a nationwide rebellion against the British.
This publication helped reach Indians living abroad and motivated them to act. It also connected with supporters in India, as its themes of revolution and unity resonated with national pride. “Ghadar” became the movement’s voice, spreading its ideas and encouraging action against British rule.
Activities During World War I
- Attempted Uprising in Punjab (1915):
During World War I, the Ghadar Party tried to start an uprising in Punjab in 1915. They planned to work with Indian soldiers in the British Army to create uprisings across India to disrupt British military control.
However, their plans failed due to British monitoring, betrayals, and poor coordination. Many Ghadar Party members were arrested for treason. Despite this, the attempt showed the strong desire for change and the willingness to fight for independence.
- Betrayals and British Suppression:
The British government heavily cracked down on the Ghadar Party, arresting key leaders like Lala Hardayal and executing many members. Betrayals from within the movement led to their plans falling apart. Despite these challenges, the Ghadar Movement inspired many and left a lasting impact on the fight for independence, showing the weaknesses of British rule.
Impact and Significance
- Globalization of Indian Nationalism:
A key outcome of the Ghadar Movement was spreading Indian nationalism worldwide. The movement connected with Indian communities globally, gaining support for India’s independence. By organizing expatriates and raising awareness among Indian soldiers abroad, the Ghadar Party linked India’s freedom struggle to the global fight against imperialism.
This movement also shifted the Indian freedom struggle towards a more radical approach, focusing on armed rebellion instead of peaceful protests. Although it didn’t reach its immediate goals, it inspired future revolutionary actions and contributed to India’s independence in 1947.
- Inspiration for Later Revolutionary Activities:
The Ghadar Movement’s ideas and focus on direct action inspired future revolutionaries in India. Its calls for armed conflict and socialist principles influenced later groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in the 1920s and 1930s. The sacrifices of Ghadar members, many of whom were executed or jailed, continued to motivate the independence movement and foster a sense of unity among Indians at home and abroad.
Singh Sabha Movement
Background
- Cultural and Religious Revival Among Sikhs:
The Singh Sabha Movement started in the 19th century to help the Sikh community deal with challenges to their culture and religion. During this time, Sikhs faced pressure from Christian missionaries trying to convert them and from Hindu reform groups pushing them to adopt Hindu practices. The movement aimed to protect Sikh identity, culture, and religious practices by encouraging a return to the basic teachings of Sikhism. - Reaction to Christian Missionaries and Hindu Reform Movements:
Sikh leaders were worried about Christian missionaries in Punjab who criticized Sikhism and tried to change its practices. At the same time, Hindu reform groups like the Arya Samaj challenged Sikh beliefs. In response, the Singh Sabha Movement aimed to strengthen Sikh faith and identity, defend Sikh practices, and promote education to resist outside influences.
Formation and Objectives
- First Singh Sabha Established in Amritsar (1873):
The first Singh Sabha was founded in 1873 in Amritsar by Sikh leaders and thinkers who wanted to revive Sikhism and protect its teachings. They aimed to tackle issues like superstition and practices that strayed from core Sikh values. By setting up Singh Sabhas across Punjab, they created spaces for discussion and reform to protect Sikhism. - Purification of Sikhism, Education, and Social Reform:
The main goals of the Singh Sabha Movement were to clean up Sikh practices and return to the original teachings of the Sikh Gurus. They wanted to eliminate non-Sikh practices like idol worship. The movement also focused on promoting education and literacy by establishing schools and colleges to help Sikhs maintain their identity while adapting to the modern world. Social reforms were also important, especially improving conditions for women and fighting against caste discrimination.
Contributions
- Standardization of Sikh Practices:
One major achievement of the Singh Sabha Movement was making Sikh practices more uniform. They worked to define Sikhism clearly, emphasizing beliefs like rejecting idol worship and following the teachings of the Guru Granth Sahib. This helped strengthen Sikh identity and differentiate Sikhism from Hinduism and Islam. - Establishment of Khalsa College, Amritsar:
Another key contribution was founding Khalsa College in Amritsar in 1892. The college aimed to provide modern education while promoting Sikh culture and values. It became an important educational center in Punjab, training many Sikh leaders and professionals who would shape the community’s future.
Literary and Educational Activities
- Publication of Sikh Literature:
The Singh Sabha Movement also focused on promoting Sikh literature and preserving Sikh history. Scholars produced many books and pamphlets to educate Sikhs about their beliefs and history, countering criticism from missionaries and Hindu reformers. These efforts helped foster pride and unity among Sikhs. - Promotion of Gurmukhi Script:
The movement also promoted the Gurmukhi script as the main way to write Punjabi, instead of the Persian-based script used during the Mughal and British periods. This effort aimed to protect and promote Sikh identity by ensuring that the language and script of Sikhism were widely used.
The Singh Sabha Movement’s contributions were crucial in maintaining and strengthening Sikhism during a time of outside challenges and internal changes.
Akali Movement
Rise After World War I
- Call for Change in Gurdwara Management:
The Akali Movement started in the early 1900s, especially after World War I, due to the corruption in Sikh gurdwaras (places of worship). These gurdwaras were managed by Mahants (priests) who often abused their power for personal gain. Many wealthy Mahants were seen as corrupt and were thought to work with the British government.
After World War I, the Sikh community wanted changes in how gurdwaras were run, asking for control to be given back to the Sikh community instead of these hereditary Mahants. This movement also reflected a growing desire for independence and was influenced by rising nationalist feelings in India.
- Fight Against Mahants’ Corruption:
The Mahants were seen as corrupt and not meeting the spiritual needs of the Sikh community. The Akali Movement sought to stop the Mahants’ corrupt practices and called for the control of gurdwaras to be handed over to the Sikh community through a central organization.
Formation of Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC)
- Central Organization for Gurdwara Management (1920):
The Akali Movement led to the creation of the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) in 1920, which became the main body responsible for managing gurdwaras in Punjab. This was part of the Sikh community’s demand for self-governance, free from British control and the influence of corrupt Mahants.
The SGPC ensured gurdwaras were run according to Sikh principles rather than for personal gain by Mahants. This was a major step towards the Sikh community gaining religious and cultural independence.
Protests and Actions
- Protests at Nankana Sahib and Guru Ka Bagh:
The Akali Movement included strong protests (morchas) to take control of gurdwaras from the Mahants. A key event was the Nankana Sahib Morcha (1921), which protested at the most sacred gurdwara, Nankana Sahib, to remove corrupt Mahants from power.
Another important event was the Guru Ka Bagh Morcha (1922), where Akali activists held peaceful protests against the poor management of gurdwaras. These protests focused on non-violence, as the Akali leaders wanted a peaceful change in control.
- Non-Violent Protests Despite British Repression:
The Akali activists remained non-violent, even when faced with harsh actions from the British government, which arrested many protestors. Their commitment to non-violence and their goal to reclaim gurdwaras gained them much support.
This non-violent approach was vital to the movement’s success and inspired other nationalist movements in India, showing the unity of the Sikh community.
Gurdwara Reform Act (1925)
- Legal Recognition of SGPC:
The Akali Movement achieved a major success with the Gurdwara Reform Act (1925), which officially recognized the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) as the body in charge of managing gurdwaras. This Act allowed the Sikh community to take control of its religious institutions, ending the long-standing practice of Mahants running gurdwaras.
It also transferred control of important gurdwaras in Punjab to the SGPC, empowering the Sikh community to manage its own affairs and freeing them from British and corrupt religious leaders.
- Empowering the Sikh Community:
The Gurdwara Reform Act was a significant step for Sikh independence, not just in religious matters but also in asserting their identity within the larger Indian national movement. It changed the relationship between the Sikh community and the British government, solidifying the SGPC’s role in Sikh life.
Role in National Movement
- Uniting Sikh People:
The Akali Movement was important in bringing together Sikh people, especially in Punjab, around the need for religious and political independence. It raised awareness about self-governance in both religious and political areas, pushing for freedom from British rule.
Akali leaders encouraged Sikhs to join the national freedom movement, and their peaceful protests against the British served as an example for other struggles. This movement helped unify Sikhs and empower them to participate in the larger independence fight.
- Working with Other Nationalist Groups:
The Akali Movement collaborated with other nationalist groups, including the Indian National Congress and Mahatma Gandhi, in the fight for Indian independence. The movement’s leaders joined broader national efforts, like the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) and the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930s).
Their willingness to work with other groups showed the importance of Sikh participation in the fight for India’s freedom.
The Akali Movement was a key part of Sikh activism, leading to important changes in gurdwara management and contributing to the overall struggle for independence in India.
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Peasants, Workers, and Tribal Movements; Emergence of the Left
Peasant Movements
Causes and Context
- Zamindari System:
The Zamindari System hurt Indian farmers. Landlords, called zamindars, collected money from farmers for land use. The British government supported this system to get more money from farmers. Zamindars treated farmers badly, making them pay high rents and taxes. This system was often corrupt, with zamindars and middlemen demanding unfair payments from farmers. - High Costs and Debt:
Farmers, who mainly grew crops, faced heavy financial pressure due to high rents and taxes. Many fell into debt, borrowing money from lenders at high interest rates to pay their bills. This financial struggle, along with famines and disasters, led to anger among farmers.
The problems caused by the zamindari system pushed farmers to organize and protest against their landlords and the British government. The rise of peasant movements in the early 20th century was a response to these tough conditions.
Key Movements
- 4.1.2.1 Kisan Sabha Movement (1920s)
- Formation of All India Kisan Sabha (1936):
The Kisan Sabha Movement helped unite farmers in India. It arose from the bad conditions farmers faced under British rule. In 1936, the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was created to bring farmers together to fight for their rights. The movement aimed to raise awareness about farmer exploitation, organize protests, and demand changes in land taxes, tenant rights, and working conditions.
- Leader: Swami Sahajanand Saraswati:
Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was a key leader in this movement. He helped organize farmers in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and other areas. He focused on the rights of farmers, especially sharecroppers, promoting fair treatment and education for farmers.
- Formation of All India Kisan Sabha (1936):
- 4.1.2.2 Tebhaga Movement (1946-1947)
- Sharecroppers’ Demand for Two-Thirds of Harvest:
The Tebhaga Movement started in Bengal in the late 1940s. Sharecroppers wanted two-thirds of the harvest instead of the one-half they usually received. This movement gained strength as sharecroppers realized they were doing all the work but getting very little of the crops. Their demand aimed to reduce the unfairness they faced.
- Concentrated in Bengal:
The Tebhaga Movement was mainly in Bengal, where sharecroppers fought for a better share of the harvest. They protested against zamindars and landlords, leading to significant unrest.
- Sharecroppers’ Demand for Two-Thirds of Harvest:
- 4.1.2.3 Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)
- Led by Vallabhbhai Patel:
The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was an important peasant protest in Gujarat, led by Vallabhbhai Patel. The protest started when the British government raised land revenue by 22%, which was too much for the farmers already facing high taxes.
- Protest Against Increased Land Revenue:
Farmers, under Patel’s guidance, refused to pay the higher taxes, leading to a peaceful protest. This movement gained national attention, and thanks to Patel’s leadership, the government eventually reversed the tax increase.
- Led by Vallabhbhai Patel:
The success of the Bardoli Satyagraha improved Patel’s reputation and became a key moment in India’s peasant movement history. It showed how organized, non-violent protests could be powerful.
Impact
- Empowerment of Farmers:
The peasant movements helped empower farmers and made them aware of their exploitation. These movements challenged the existing power structures and educated farmers about their rights. The success of the Kisan Sabhas, Bardoli Satyagraha, and Tebhaga Movement built unity among rural communities and encouraged them to fight for independence and social justice. - Joining the National Movement:
Peasant movements were crucial to the national movement for independence. Farmers took part in struggles like the Non-Cooperation Movement, the Civil Disobedience Movement, and the Quit India Movement, which strengthened the overall fight for freedom. Leaders like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati and Vallabhbhai Patel became important figures in the Indian National Congress and contributed to the independence cause.
The involvement of farmers in these movements showed that India’s struggle for freedom was also a fight for social and economic justice for all, especially the rural poor.
Peasant movements were key in changing rural India, creating a sense of unity and collective action. Their calls for land rights, fair revenue systems, and social justice were vital to the larger Indian independence movement.
Workers’ Movements
Industrial Growth and Labor Conditions
- Rise of Factories and Mills:
During British rule, India saw the growth of factories and mills, especially in cities like Bombay, Calcutta, and Ahmedabad. While this industrial growth improved the economy and infrastructure, it also showed how workers were being treated unfairly. The opening of textile mills and factories in the early 1900s created jobs, but workers faced tough conditions. - Bad Working Conditions and Low Pay:
Factory workers often worked long hours, sometimes more than 12 to 14 hours a day, with little rest. Their work environments were unsafe, with dangerous machines and poor conditions. Workers were paid very little, not enough to cover basic needs. Many lived in crowded and unhealthy places near factories, without any social security or health benefits. This mistreatment led to growing anger among workers, which sparked the workers’ movements in India.
Formation of Trade Unions
- All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) Established in 1920:
Trade unions were formed to organize workers and voice their complaints. The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was created in 1920 as the first national trade union group in India. The AITUC aimed to bring workers together to fight for better pay, working conditions, and rights. Trade unions gave workers a united voice to stand up against mistreatment. - Leaders:
Two key figures in the AITUC’s formation were Lala Lajpat Rai and N.M. Joshi. Lala Lajpat Rai was a significant freedom fighter who also fought for workers’ rights. N.M. Joshi was another important leader who helped organize workers and support trade unions in India. The AITUC worked to unite workers and fight for their rights.
Major Strikes and Actions
- 4.2.3.1 Bombay Textile Strike (1928)
- Led by Communist Leaders:
The Bombay Textile Strike of 1928 was a major labor strike in India. Led by communist leaders, the strike aimed to raise awareness about how workers were being treated. Workers from textile mills protested against low pay and bad working conditions. The strike included strong protests and received support from the public, students, and political groups.
- This strike showed the growing power of the communist movement among Indian workers and their need to work together to solve their problems. Although the British government responded violently, it marked a significant workers’ struggle in colonial India.
- Led by Communist Leaders:
- 4.2.3.2 Great Indian Railway Strike (1927)
- Strike for Better Conditions:
The Great Indian Railway Strike of 1927 involved railway workers across India demanding better pay and working conditions. They protested against low wages, long hours, and unsafe conditions on the job. Railway workers were vital to the British economy but were poorly paid and mistreated.
- The strike disrupted railway services, essential for British control. The British government reacted harshly, arresting leaders and using force to stop the strike. Despite this, the strike raised awareness about workers’ conditions and showed the labor force’s growing political awareness.
- Strike for Better Conditions:
Role in National Movement
- Awareness of Class Solidarity:
The workers’ movements helped people understand the importance of unity among workers and the need for social justice. Strikes and protests created a sense of community among industrial workers in India. These movements showed that workers needed to come together to demand better treatment from both colonial rulers and factory owners. The rise of trade unions was a step towards the larger labor movement that grew throughout the 20th century. - Support for Anti-Colonial Struggle:
Workers’ movements were closely linked to the fight for India’s independence. Many workers, especially those in unions like the AITUC, supported the anti-colonial struggle and worked with groups like the Indian National Congress. Many joined the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922), the Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934), and the Quit India Movement (1942), contributing to the overall fight against British rule.
Workers’ demands for better pay and conditions were connected to the larger struggle for freedom from British control.
The workers’ movements were crucial in India’s fight for independence. They raised important issues about economic fairness, workers’ rights, and unity among workers. These movements set the stage for labor politics in independent India and the creation of labor rights.
Tribal Movements
Causes
- Exploitation by Moneylenders and Forest Laws:
Tribal communities in India faced serious problems due to moneylenders and forest laws set by the British government. Moneylenders, often from outside tribal groups, charged very high interest rates, putting the tribals in debt. The tribals had few options for financial help and lost their lands.
The British forest laws took away the rights of tribal people to gather forest products, which they had relied on for many years. These laws limited their access to forests where they lived, hunted, and collected resources. This led to the loss of their homes and made their lives harder.
- Displacement and Loss of Traditional Rights:
Many tribals were forced off their lands because of the growth of colonial plantations and industries. The colonial government neglected their traditional rights to land and forests, favoring non-tribal settlers and businesses. Losing their land and traditional ways of making a living caused anger among the tribals, leading to the formation of tribal movements.
Notable Movements
- 4.3.2.1 Tana Bhagat Movement (1914-1920s)
- Oraon Tribe in Bihar:
The Tana Bhagat Movement started with the Oraon tribe in Bihar in the early 1900s. This movement was inspired by Gandhi’s non-violent methods and focused on tribal issues. Named after the leader Tana Bhagat, it protested against British rule and the unfair practices of moneylenders. It aimed to assert tribal cultural identity and their rights to land and forest resources.
- Influence of Gandhian Methods:
Although Tana Bhagat wasn’t directly led by Gandhi, his ideas of non-violence and self-reliance influenced the movement. The movement fought against outsiders taking over tribal lands and the unfair economic system that included moneylending and colonial laws.
- Oraon Tribe in Bihar:
- 4.3.2.2 Alluri Sitarama Raju and Rampa Rebellion (1922-1924)
- Uprising in Andhra Pradesh:
The Rampa Rebellion in Andhra Pradesh (1922-1924), led by Alluri Sitarama Raju, was a major tribal uprising. It happened because of harsh colonial forest laws and strict actions by British police. The British limited the rights of tribals to farm and collect forest products, causing great hardship. The government even forced them into labor for colonial needs.
- Resistance to British Policies and Police Actions:
Alluri Sitarama Raju became a symbol of resistance against British rule. He rallied tribal people and led armed protests against the British. They fought for their rights over forests and freedom from oppressive laws. Although the rebellion was eventually crushed, it became a symbol of tribal resistance and played an important role in the Indian independence movement.
- Uprising in Andhra Pradesh:
Significance
- Assertion of Tribal Identity and Rights:
The tribal movements of the early 20th century, like the Tana Bhagat Movement and the Rampa Rebellion, were important for claiming the identity and rights of tribal people. These communities, long ignored and oppressed, began to organize and demand acknowledgment of their traditional rights to land, forests, and self-rule. These movements helped develop a sense of tribal awareness in India, which continued to influence tribal politics after independence. - Challenge to Colonial Authority:
The tribal uprisings directly challenged British rule and the systems that exploited tribals. These movements brought attention to the problems faced by tribal communities, like losing their land and being exploited by outsiders. Although the British tried to suppress these movements by force, the resistance showed the growing dissatisfaction among tribals and their wish for justice and independence. The Rampa Rebellion, in particular, became a symbol of the struggle against British oppression and was celebrated in Indian stories of resistance.
Tribal movements in India were crucial in highlighting issues of land loss, economic exploitation, and the erosion of traditional rights. They also played a role in the rising national awareness and resistance to colonial rule, alongside other movements led by the Congress and revolutionary groups.
Emergence of the Left
Ideological Foundations
- Influence of Marxism and the Russian Revolution:
The Left in India grew from ideas of Marxism and the Russian Revolution of 1917. Karl Marx’s ideas about class conflict, exploitation, and the need for a working-class revolution helped shape Leftist movements in India. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution inspired many Indian thinkers and leaders to explore socialist ideas as a way to fight against colonial and capitalist exploitation.
Socialism gained support in India as a way to oppose the capitalist exploitation by British rulers and local elites, especially landlords, moneylenders, and industrialists who took advantage of workers and farmers. The Russian Revolution showed how a working-class revolution could change oppressive systems and create a socialist state.
- Critique of Capitalist Exploitation:
The Left criticized the capitalist system, seeing it as unfair and benefiting a small group while hurting many. They opposed the Zamindari system, which kept farmers in debt and poverty, and the industrial system that paid workers poorly and treated them badly. The Left argued that a socialist revolution was necessary to free the people from this exploitation by breaking down the capitalist system and sharing wealth with workers and farmers.
Formation of Communist Parties
- 4.4.2.1 Communist Party of India (CPI) Established in 1925
- Early Leaders:
The Communist Party of India (CPI) was founded in 1925 in Kanpur, with leaders like M.N. Roy and S.A. Dange playing important roles. Roy was a significant figure who had been part of the Ghadar Party and later embraced Marxist ideas. He helped shape the early beliefs and plans of the CPI. S.A. Dange also played a key role in organizing the party and connecting with workers’ and farmers’ groups.
- Ideological Shift:
The formation of the CPI marked a shift towards a revolutionary, socialist way of seeking independence from British rule, differing from the moderate and Gandhian approaches that focused on peaceful resistance. The CPI aimed to promote class struggle, socialist revolution, and the overthrow of capitalism as the main way to achieve India’s freedom.
- Early Leaders:
Activities and Challenges
- Propagation of Socialist Ideas:
The Communist Party shared Marxist and socialist ideas through writings, meetings, and rallies. They stressed the importance of workers controlling industries, land reforms for farmers, and nationalizing key industries. They also called for a dictatorship of the working class to create a socialist state in India. - British Repression: Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929):
The Communist movement faced harsh crackdowns from the British. One major event was the Meerut Conspiracy Case in 1929, where many Communist leaders and labor activists were arrested for supposedly planning a revolution. The British used this case to suppress the Communist Party and its growing influence among workers and farmers. Although this resulted in the imprisonment of many leaders and a temporary setback, the CPI continued its work secretly and kept support from the working class.
Role in the National Movement
- Participation in Trade Unions and Peasant Movements:
The Communist Party actively organized trade unions and peasant movements, focusing on bringing workers and farmers together to fight for their rights. The AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress), formed in 1920, was an important platform for the left-wing and Communist movements to unite workers in various industries, including textiles, railways, and coal mines.
In rural areas, Communists organized farmers, especially in places like Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala, where issues of land reform and fair rents were important. Communist leaders aimed to link the broader national movement for independence with the class struggle, combining the fight for freedom from colonial rule with the quest for social and economic fairness.
- Ideological Diversity within the Freedom Struggle:
The Communist Party’s role in the national freedom movement showed a range of beliefs. While the Congress Party focused on Gandhian non-violence and civil disobedience, the CPI pushed for more radical methods, such as revolutionary violence, land reforms, and nationalization of industries. This difference in ideas created tensions within the overall nationalist struggle, as the Congress Party and Communist Party often had conflicting visions for India after independence.
Influence on Post-Independence Politics
- Development of Left-Wing Parties:
After India gained independence in 1947, the Communist Party of India remained a key player in Indian politics, especially in Kerala, West Bengal, and Tripura, where it gained significant power. The CPI aligned with the Soviet Union during the Cold War and adopted a socialist agenda, focusing on land reforms, workers’ rights, and social justice. Over time, the CPI split into several groups, with the CPI(M) (Communist Party of India – Marxist) becoming a major force in Indian politics. - Impact on Economic and Social Policies:
The influence of left-wing ideas in post-independence India was seen in the adoption of some socialist economic policies, like land redistribution, nationalization of key industries, and creating a mixed economy. The Five-Year Plans introduced by Jawaharlal Nehru showed a commitment to economic planning and government involvement in important areas like agriculture, industry, and infrastructure. Left-wing movements also shaped labor policies and welfare programs aimed at improving conditions for workers and farmers.
The emergence of the Left was an important part of the Indian independence struggle, adding a radical socialist perspective to the fight against colonial rule. While Gandhian non-violence was the main approach, the Left offered a different voice, pushing for a more revolutionary method to achieve social fairness and economic equality.
Subhas Chandra Bose and Indian National Army; Royal Indian Navy Mutiny
Subhas Chandra Bose
Early Life and Political Career
- Birth in Cuttack, Odisha (1897):
Subhas Chandra Bose was born on January 23, 1897, in Cuttack, Odisha. He came from a rich and educated family. He studied in Cuttack and then went to Calcutta (Kolkata) for more education. - Civil Service Exam and Resignation:
Bose passed the Indian Civil Services (ICS) exam in 1919. He went to England to join the ICS, but he became unhappy with British rule and quit in 1921. He returned to India to fight for independence. - Joining Congress and Becoming President (1938, 1939):
Bose joined the Indian National Congress (INC) and was soon recognized for his intelligence and leadership. He was elected President of the INC in 1938 and again in 1939. He wanted a stronger approach to gain independence, unlike some Congress leaders who were more moderate.
Ideological Stance
- Complete Independence:
Bose strongly supported complete independence for India. Unlike some Congress leaders who accepted partial freedom, he believed true freedom could not come from talks but needed a direct fight against British rule. - Militant Methods:
Bose thought it was necessary to use militant methods for independence. He disagreed with Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent approach. This difference in views created a rift between him and other Congress leaders, especially Gandhi and the moderates who preferred peaceful negotiations.
Formation of Forward Bloc (1939)
- Split with Congress:
In 1939, Bose grew unhappy with the Congress leadership under Gandhi. He felt their methods were too weak against British rule. This disagreement led to his resignation as Congress President. - Formation of Forward Bloc:
After leaving Congress, Bose started the Forward Bloc in 1939 to bring together all the leftist and radical groups in Indian politics. The Forward Bloc aimed to inspire young people to join the fight for independence. Bose’s vision combined nationalism with socialist ideas, appealing to those who were tired of the moderate ways of the main Congress leaders.
Indian National Army (INA)
Origins
- Formation by Indian Prisoners of War in Singapore (1942):
The Indian National Army (INA) was created during World War II by Indian prisoners of war held by the Japanese army in Singapore in 1942. These soldiers were originally in the British Indian Army but became inspired by the desire for Indian independence after being captured. - Initial Leadership: Mohan Singh:
The first leader of the INA was Mohan Singh, a British Indian Army officer who worked with the Japanese to start the INA. The goal was to form an army to fight against British rule. However, due to differences with the Japanese, Mohan Singh was replaced by Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943.
Bose’s Involvement
- Escape from India; Travel to Germany and Japan:
Subhas Chandra Bose got involved with the INA after escaping from house arrest in India in 1941. He traveled to Germany through Afghanistan and Soviet Russia to seek help for India’s independence. After realizing Germany would not strongly support India, he moved to Japan in 1943, where Japanese leaders agreed to help his cause. - Assumed Leadership of INA (1943):
Subhas Chandra Bose became the leader of the INA in 1943 and worked to make it a stronger force against British rule. He wanted to lead a fight for a free India and sought support from Indians abroad and military aid from Japan.
Objectives
- Armed Struggle to Oust British from India:
The main goal of the INA was to free India from British rule through armed resistance. Bose believed that fighting was the only way to gain independence. The INA aimed to work with other revolutionary groups in India to start a fight against British forces. - Collaboration with Axis Powers:
To reach its goals, the INA worked with the Axis Powers, especially Japan, which provided training, weapons, and resources. Bose used this support to build an army to fight the British. However, this alliance was controversial and raised concerns among many in India.
Key Campaigns
- Advance towards India through Burma:
Under Bose’s leadership, the INA launched military operations with the Japanese army, moving through Burma (now Myanmar) towards India. Their aim was to free Indian areas under British control and encourage Indians to rise against British rule. - Battles at Imphal and Kohima (1944):
The INA fought important battles at Imphal and Kohima in 1944 but faced defeats due to strong British resistance. These losses marked the beginning of the INA’s decline, as they struggled to gain ground.
Roles and Contributions
- Formation of the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind):
In 1943, Bose announced the creation of the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) in Singapore. This government aimed to be a legitimate alternative to British rule, and Japan, Germany, and Italy recognized it, though most of the world did not. It represented Bose’s vision for an independent India. - Inclusion of Women: Rani of Jhansi Regiment led by Captain Lakshmi Sahgal:
The INA included women in its ranks, which was unusual for military groups. One notable unit was the Rani of Jhansi Regiment, led by Captain Lakshmi Sahgal, who was a strong nationalist. This highlighted Bose’s efforts to involve all parts of society in the fight for independence.
Decline and Legacy
- Military Setbacks; Surrender Post-1945:
After the defeats at Imphal and Kohima, and with Japan’s defeat in World War II, the INA started to fall apart. The army faced supply problems and lost its support from Japan. By the end of the war, the INA had surrendered, and its soldiers were either captured or had retreated. - Bose’s Mysterious Disappearance (1945):
Subhas Chandra Bose disappeared mysteriously in August 1945. It is believed he died in a plane crash in Taipei, Taiwan, but there is no clear proof of this. His disappearance remains a debated topic. - Impact on British Decision to Leave India:
While the INA did not succeed in removing the British, its actions had a strong psychological effect. Bose’s leadership helped to unite public opinion against British rule. The trial of INA officers after the war led to protests, and the British, already weakened by the war, began to reconsider their control over India. The INA’s efforts contributed to the rising nationalist feelings that eventually led to India’s independence in 1947.
Royal Indian Navy (RIN) Mutiny (1946)
Causes
- Anger Over Discrimination and Bad Conditions:
The Royal Indian Navy (RIN) mutiny in 1946 happened because Indian sailors were very unhappy about being treated unfairly, having poor working conditions, and being ignored. They faced harsh treatment, low pay, and racism from British officers, which made them ready to rebel. - Influence of Nationalist Feelings:
The independence movement and the Indian National Congress (INC)‘s fight for freedom inspired the sailors. The Quit India Movement of 1942 and other revolutionary groups encouraged the RIN sailors to question British rule. The defeat of the Axis powers in World War II weakened British power, making the Indian independence movement stronger.
Course of the Mutiny
- Starts on HMIS Talwar in Bombay (February 18, 1946):
The mutiny began on February 18, 1946, on the British ship HMIS Talwar in Bombay (now Mumbai). The sailors, unhappy with their treatment, protested about food quality and working conditions, which quickly turned into a full revolt against British authority. - Spread to Other Ships and Bases:
The protest spread from one ship to others in the Bombay area and then to naval bases across India. The mutineers took control of several ships, disrupting British naval operations in India. - Creation of a Naval Central Strike Committee:
The mutineers formed a Naval Central Strike Committee to organize their efforts. This committee helped bring together sailors from different backgrounds and led the larger rebellion.
Demands
- Better Working Conditions:
The mutineers wanted better working conditions, including improved food, pay, and treatment, and an end to the harsh conditions they faced. - Release of INA Prisoners:
They demanded the release of Indian National Army (INA) prisoners. Many INA soldiers, who fought under Subhas Chandra Bose and were captured by the British during World War II, were still in custody. The sailors saw the fight for independence as a shared struggle and wanted these freedom fighters released. - Withdrawal of British Troops:
The mutineers also called for the withdrawal of British troops from India, reflecting the wider demand for the British to leave the country. They saw British soldiers in the military as a reminder of their oppression.
Response and Suppression
- British Military Action; Casualties on Both Sides:
The British quickly responded to the mutiny with military force. The Royal Navy sent in reinforcements, and there were clashes between the mutineers and British forces, resulting in casualties on both sides. The British tried to end the strike with violence but could not immediately stop the rebellion. - Lack of Support from Political Leaders:
Although the mutiny was popular among sailors and the public, it did not get support from the leaders of the Indian National Congress (INC) or the Muslim League. At that time, the INC was working with the British for a peaceful transfer of power and did not support a military uprising. The Muslim League, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, also did not back the mutiny, focusing instead on their own political goals.
Significance
- Unity Among Sailors of Different Backgrounds:
The RIN Mutiny showed the unity of sailors from various backgrounds. Sailors from Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, and Christian communities worked together, showing the potential for national unity against British rule. This was a strong message to the British that their control over the Indian armed forces was weakening. - Weakening of British Authority Over Armed Forces:
The mutiny showed how weak British control over the Indian armed forces had become. The British, who relied on Indian soldiers to maintain control, faced a serious challenge. The revolt indicated that their power was not secure and that ongoing rebellions could threaten British rule in India. - Impact on British Decision for Independence:
Even though the mutiny was quickly suppressed, it had a significant impact on British decisions. The mutiny alerted the British to the deteriorating situation in India. It was one of the key events that sped up the process of Indian independence. The British realized they could no longer control India through military force, and the revolt helped hasten India’s independence in 1947.
The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny is often seen as the last major uprising against British rule before India became independent, symbolizing the strength and unity of the Indian armed forces during the final stages of colonial rule.
Looking at these different trends shows the many sides of India’s fight for independence. Dr. Ambedkar and the Dravidian movements focused on social and political change, while the HSRA and the Ghadar Movement worked hard for freedom in different ways.
Peasant, worker, and tribal movements showed how unhappy people were with British rule, and new Left ideas added more layers to the fight for freedom. Subhas Chandra Bose’s brave efforts with the INA and the strong unity during the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny also pushed back against British control.