In this post, notes of “Unit 1: United Kingdom” from “DSC 17: Comparative Political Systems” are given which is helpful for the students doing graduation this year.

Introduction to the UK Political System

The United Kingdom (UK) has one of the oldest political systems in the world.

It has changed over many years and is known for having a parliamentary system, a king or queen, and a long history. Here’s a simple overview:

History of the UK Political System

The UK’s political system has changed over a thousand years due to important events and changes:

• Anglo-Saxon Period: The early system of governance started in the Anglo-Saxon time (5th to 11th centuries). Early councils like the Witenagemot (a group of nobles and church leaders advising the king) were early forms of Parliament.
• Magna Carta (1215): The signing of the Magna Carta by King John was a key moment. It limited the king’s power and established that everyone, including the king, must follow the law.
• The English Civil War (1642-1651): This war between King Charles I and Parliament changed the balance of power. After the war, the monarchy was paused, and England became a republic. The monarchy returned in 1660, but Parliament became more powerful.
• The Glorious Revolution (1688): This event established that Parliament was supreme. William of Orange and Mary II took the throne after James II was removed. The Bill of Rights 1689 limited the monarch’s power.
• The Reform Acts (19th Century): A series of laws in the 1800s, especially the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884, made voting more inclusive and democratic.
• 20th Century and Beyond: Key changes included giving women the right to vote (in 1918 and 1928), ending colonial rule, and reducing the monarch’s power. Today, the UK has regular elections, a Parliament that makes laws, and a monarch with mainly ceremonial duties.

Key Features of the Westminster Model

The UK’s political system is called the Westminster model, named after the location of Parliament. Key features include:

1. Parliamentary Sovereignty: Parliament can make or change any law and is the highest legal authority.
2. Constitutional Monarchy: The UK has a king or queen (currently King Charles III) as a ceremonial leader, while real power is held by elected officials, mainly the Prime Minister and Parliament.
3. Bicameral Parliament: The UK Parliament has two houses:
   • House of Commons: The lower house with Members of Parliament (MPs) elected by the public. It is the main house for making laws.
   • House of Lords: The upper house with appointed and hereditary members. It reviews and suggests changes to laws but cannot stop laws passed by the Commons.
4. Prime Minister and Cabinet: The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons and runs the government. The Prime Minister picks Cabinet members to help govern.
5. Political Parties: The UK has several political parties, but the two main ones are the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Other parties also play important roles.
6. Majoritarian Electoral System: The UK uses a First-Past-the-Post system for elections, where the candidate with the most votes wins. This system usually helps larger parties.

The Role of Constitutional Conventions

The UK does not have a single written constitution. Instead, it follows laws made by Parliament, laws from court decisions, and constitutional conventions, which are unwritten rules that guide politics.

Some important conventions include:

• Prime Minister’s Membership: It is a convention that the Prime Minister must be a member of Parliament.
• Royal Assent: The monarch must formally approve laws passed by Parliament, though they have not refused since the early 1700s.
• Parliament and Executive Relationship: The Prime Minister and Cabinet must have the support of the House of Commons to remain in power. If they lose this support, they may need to resign.
• House of Lords’ Role: The House of Lords can review and suggest changes to laws, but it must follow the House of Commons’ decisions.
• Monarch’s Role: The monarch has some formal powers, but conventions say these are used based on the Prime Minister’s advice.

Conclusion

The UK’s political system is a mix of history, changing practices, and unwritten rules. The Westminster model has influenced many other democracies.

It balances power between the monarchy, Parliament, and the people, with democratic principles at its core. Constitutional conventions add flexibility, allowing the system to adapt over time.

The Constitution of the United Kingdom

The Constitution of the United Kingdom is different from most countries. Many countries have a single written document that explains how they are governed.

In contrast, the UK has an unwritten constitution, made up of laws, court decisions, traditions, and important writings. This system has developed over many years and shows the UK’s adaptable political structure.

Features of the Unwritten Constitution

The UK’s constitution is often called unwritten, but it is better described as uncodified.

This means there is no single, official document that spells out how the government works and what citizens’ rights are. Instead, it comes from various sources that have developed over time.

Key features of the UK’s unwritten constitution include:

1. Flexibility: The UK constitution can change easily through new laws, court rulings, and traditions. This allows it to adapt to new situations without needing big changes.
2. Non-judiciable: There is no single document that courts can interpret like the U.S. Constitution. UK courts can judge government actions’ legality, but they usually cannot cancel laws made by Parliament.
3. Fragmented: The constitution is not in one document but is spread across different sources, both written and unwritten. These sources can overlap, making it complex.
4. Evolutionary: The constitution has developed over a long time, influenced by important historical events, such as the Magna Carta and various parliamentary changes.

Sources of the UK Constitution

The UK constitution comes from four main sources:

1. Statute Law (Acts of Parliament): These are laws passed by Parliament and are the most significant source today. Important examples include:
   • The Act of Union (1707): This united England and Scotland.
   • The Representation of the People Acts: These acts expanded voting rights to include women and working-class men.
   • The Human Rights Act (1998): This included the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law.
   • The Fixed-term Parliaments Act (2011): This set elections to occur every five years but has faced criticism.
2. Common Law (Judicial Precedent): This law comes from judges’ decisions in courts. Over time, past decisions become part of the constitution. Key principles include the right to a fair trial and habeas corpus, which protects against being held without evidence.
   • Example: The habeas corpus principle has been part of British law since the 12th century, ensuring individuals cannot be held without being charged with a crime.
3. Conventions: These are unwritten practices that have developed over time. They are not legally enforceable but are followed for political reasons. Examples include:
   • The Prime Minister being a Member of Parliament: This is a norm, not a law.
   • The royal assent: It is a convention that the monarch does not refuse to sign bills passed by Parliament, which is necessary for a bill to become law.
4. Works of Authority: These are important texts that guide how the UK’s political system works. They are not laws but help explain constitutional practices. They are often written by experts.
   • Example: Erskine May’s “Parliamentary Practice” outlines the rules and traditions of the UK Parliament and is often used by Parliament members and legal professionals.

The Principle of Parliamentary Sovereignty

A key idea in the UK constitution is parliamentary sovereignty. This means that Parliament is the highest legal authority and can make, change, or remove any law. Important points include:

1. No legal limits on Parliamentary Power: Parliament can make or change any law without legal restrictions. It can pass laws that go against previous decisions or old laws.
2. The Judiciary’s Role: UK courts cannot cancel laws made by Parliament, even if they believe the laws are wrong. Courts may explain laws and apply them but cannot invalidate Acts of Parliament.
3. Devolution and Parliamentary Sovereignty: Devolution gives some powers to the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh Assembly, and the Northern Ireland Assembly. These bodies can make laws on certain issues, but Westminster remains the ultimate authority.
4. European Union Law and Parliamentary Sovereignty: When the UK was part of the EU, EU law was more important than UK law in some areas. However, after Brexit in 2020, the UK regained full power over its legal system.

The Rule of Law in the UK Context

The rule of law is a key principle in the UK constitution, ensuring everyone, including the government, follows the law. Key aspects include:

1. Equality Before the Law: No one is above the law, including government officials. Everyone must follow the same laws and can be held accountable.
2. Protection of Rights and Freedoms: The rule of law protects individual rights, ensuring laws are made to safeguard citizens and provide fair processes.
3. Legal Certainty: Laws should be clear and predictable, allowing citizens to understand what the law is and how it applies.
4. Judicial Independence: Courts in the UK must operate independently from the government and Parliament, interpreting and applying laws without interference.
5. Access to Justice: People must be able to seek legal help and address any violations of their rights. This includes access to lawyers and fair trials.

In summary, the rule of law in the UK focuses on fairness, justice, and accountability. It ensures the government follows the law and that citizens can seek help when their rights are violated.

Conclusion

The UK’s constitution is a complex mix of various sources, including statute law, common law, conventions, and authoritative texts.

The principle of parliamentary sovereignty is central to the system, affirming Parliament’s ultimate power, but this is balanced by the rule of law, which ensures laws are applied fairly and protect individual rights.

This adaptability allows the UK’s political system to evolve while maintaining stability and justice.

The Monarchy in the United Kingdom

The monarchy in the United Kingdom is one of the oldest institutions in the world, with a history of over a thousand years.

Although the monarch’s powers have changed a lot over time, the British monarchy is still an important part of the UK’s political and cultural identity, especially in its ceremonial role.

History and Changes of the Monarchy

The British monarchy has changed greatly from its early days to its current role as a ceremonial leader. Here are some important moments in its history:

1. Anglo-Saxon and Early Medieval Period:
   The idea of a king in England started in the early medieval times, with early kings like Egbert of Wessex unifying several kingdoms in the 9th century. The Norman Conquest in 1066, led by William the Conqueror, made the monarchy more centralized.
2. Magna Carta (1215):
   The signing of the Magna Carta by King John in 1215 began the change from a king with total power to one whose power was limited by law. This document helped create the legal principles that influenced the development of parliamentary democracy in England.
3. The English Civil War (1642–1651):
   The English Civil War was between King Charles I (Royalists) and Parliament (Parliamentarians). Charles I was executed in 1649, leading to the temporary end of the monarchy and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell. The monarchy was restored in 1660 under Charles II.
4. The Glorious Revolution (1688):
   The Glorious Revolution saw King James II, a Catholic king, removed from power and replaced by his daughter Mary II and her husband William III of Orange. This marked the end of the idea that kings ruled by divine right and established the power of Parliament over the monarchy, leading to the Bill of Rights (1689), which limited the king’s powers.
5. 19th and 20th Centuries:
   As Britain became a modern democracy, the monarchy’s powers continued to decrease, especially with the Reform Acts in the 19th century that expanded voting rights. By the early 20th century, King George V and Queen Elizabeth II became mostly symbolic leaders with little political power, as real power shifted to elected officials.

The Role of the Monarch in a Constitutional Monarchy

In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch’s role is mostly ceremonial.

The country is governed by elected officials, mainly the Prime Minister and Parliament, but the monarch still has an important, if symbolic, role.

1. Head of State:
   The monarch is the formal head of state, representing the nation and serving as a unifying figure. Their role is mostly ceremonial, representing the UK in diplomatic matters.
2. The Royal Prerogative:
   The monarch has some formal powers, called the Royal Prerogative, which include:
   • Appointing the Prime Minister: The monarch invites the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons to form a government.
   • Summoning and Dissolving Parliament: The monarch opens and prorogues Parliament on the Prime Minister’s advice and can dissolve Parliament to call for a general election, following parliamentary rules.
   • Royal Assent: The monarch’s approval is needed for a bill to become law, but this has not been refused since the early 1700s and is mostly a formality.
   • Foreign Affairs: The monarch represents the UK in international matters.
3. Non-Political Role:
   The monarch stays out of politics, ensuring the monarchy remains a neutral symbol of unity, allowing elected officials to do their jobs without interference.

Ceremonial and Symbolic Functions of the Monarchy

Even though the monarch’s political powers are limited, they still perform important ceremonial and symbolic functions that are key to the UK’s national identity.

1. State Ceremonies and National Events:
   The monarch is involved in many important ceremonies and events, such as:
   • State Opening of Parliament: The monarch delivers the Queen’s Speech (or King’s Speech) to outline the government’s plans for the year.
   • Trooping the Colour: An annual parade celebrating the monarch’s birthday.
   • Royal Weddings and Funerals: The royal family participates in significant events like royal weddings and state funerals.
2. Head of the Commonwealth:
   The monarch is the symbolic leader of the Commonwealth of Nations, which includes 56 independent countries. This role promotes unity and shared values among member states.
3. National Unity:
   The monarch symbolizes national unity, representing the whole nation rather than any political party, and provides stability during crises or celebrations.
4. Charitable Work:
   The monarch and royal family support various charities, raising awareness and donations for important causes.
5. Royal Visits and Diplomacy:
   The monarch makes official visits abroad, helping strengthen relationships with other countries.

Conclusion

The monarchy in the UK has changed from having great power to a mostly ceremonial role today.

Now, the monarch is the symbolic head of state in a constitutional monarchy, with limited powers mostly exercised on the advice of elected officials.

The monarchy remains a key part of the UK’s identity and cultural heritage, serving as a unifying figure and performing important ceremonial duties.

The Parliament of the United Kingdom

The Parliament of the United Kingdom is the highest law-making body in the country.

It makes laws, checks on the government, and represents the people’s interests. It has two houses: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Together, they are important for democracy in the UK.

Structure and Composition: House of Commons and House of Lords

1. House of Commons:
   • Members: There are 650 Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons. They are elected by the public during general elections. Each MP represents a specific area called a constituency. MPs serve for five years, but this can be shorter if an election happens early.
   • Role: The House of Commons is the main body for making laws. Most government decisions, including laws and taxes, start here. It is also where political debates happen.
   • Majority Party: The party with the most seats usually forms the government. The leader of this party becomes the Prime Minister and picks ministers to make the Cabinet.
2. House of Lords:
   • Members: The House of Lords is the upper house. Its members are not elected but are appointed. There are three types of members:
     • Life Peers: Appointed by the monarch, based on advice from the Prime Minister or a special committee. They are chosen for their knowledge and experience and do not pass their titles to their children.
     • Hereditary Peers: They inherited their titles, but the House of Lords Act 1999 reduced their number. Only 92 remain, chosen by their peers.
     • Lords Spiritual: Senior members of the Church of England, like bishops, who have seats in the House of Lords.
   • Role: The House of Lords reviews bill from the House of Commons and can suggest changes. While it can delay laws, it cannot stop them forever. The Lords also check government policies through debates and committees.

Functions and Powers of Parliament

1. Legislative Function:
   • Parliament mainly creates, changes, and repeals laws. Bills (proposed laws) must be approved by both houses before they become law. The House of Commons has the final say, but the House of Lords can suggest changes.
   • After both houses agree, the monarch gives Royal Assent, which is mostly a formality and has not been refused in recent times.
2. Scrutinizing the Government:
   • Parliament checks the government’s actions. MPs and Lords ask questions and participate in debates about government policies and spending.
   • The Opposition parties (those not in government) hold the government accountable through Question Time and select committees.
   • Parliament approves budgets and government spending.
3. Representation:
   • Parliament represents the public through the elected MPs in the House of Commons. MPs debate national issues on behalf of their constituents.
   • The House of Lords provides expert opinions in areas like law, science, business, and the arts.
4. Constitutional Role:
   • Parliament is key to the UK’s constitutional system, ensuring no branch of government becomes too powerful. Parliamentary sovereignty means Parliament can change any law, even those made by the courts.
5. Ratification of Treaties and International Agreements:
   • While the Prime Minister and Cabinet negotiate treaties, Parliament must ratify many before they take effect. This acts as a check on government foreign policy.

The Legislative Process in the UK

To make a bill into law, it goes through several stages:

1. First Reading: The bill is introduced in either the House of Commons or the House of Lords. This stage is formal, and there is no debate.
2. Second Reading: The main ideas of the bill are debated. A vote is taken, and if it passes, it moves to the next stage.
3. Committee Stage: A committee of MPs or Lords examines the bill closely and can suggest changes. In the Commons, this is often done by a Public Bill Committee, while in the Lords, it may be a Committee of the Whole House.
4. Report Stage: The bill is discussed by the whole House again, and further changes can be made.
5. Third Reading: The final version of the bill is debated, and MPs or Lords decide whether to approve it. No changes can be made at this point.
6. Consideration of Amendments: If the bill started in one House, it goes to the other House for review. If changes are made, it returns to the first House.
7. Royal Assent: After both Houses agree on the final version, it goes to the monarch for Royal Assent. Once granted, the bill becomes law.

The Role of Committees in Parliamentary Proceedings

Committees are important for Parliament to examine government policies and laws in detail. They consist of small groups of MPs or Lords who meet regularly.

1. Select Committees:
   • These committees include members from different political parties and focus on specific government areas. They check the work of departments, ask questions, and report findings.
   • Example: The Public Accounts Committee looks at government spending, while the Home Affairs Select Committee checks the work of the Home Office.
2. Joint Committees:
   • Some committees include members from both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. They work on issues needing cooperation, like the Joint Committee on Human Rights.
3. Committee of the Whole House:
   • This is used in the House of Lords and sometimes in the Commons to discuss bills in detail, allowing all members to join in.
4. Public Bill Committees:
   • In the House of Commons, a bill may go to a Public Bill Committee for detailed review. These are temporary groups focusing on one bill.
5. Evidence Gathering:
   • Committees invite witnesses, like experts and public officials, to share their views. This helps them understand issues better and make informed recommendations.
6. Reports and Recommendations:
   • After reviewing an issue, committees write reports for debate and action in Parliament. The government must respond, and often implements the recommendations.

Conclusion

The UK Parliament is central to the country’s political system. Its two houses—the House of Commons and House of Lords—ensure laws are debated and reviewed carefully.

The House of Commons has the main power to make laws, while the House of Lords revises them. Through its law-making, government checks, and committee work, Parliament makes sure laws serve the public interest and holds the government accountable.

The legislative process is structured and involves both Houses, with committees playing a key role in examining details and ensuring government accountability.

The Executive in the United Kingdom

The Executive in the UK is the group that puts laws from Parliament into action and manages the daily work of the government.

The Prime Minister leads this group, with help from the Cabinet and the Civil Service.

Even though the UK has a monarch, their role is mainly ceremonial, and real power is held by the elected government.

The Prime Minister: Powers, Functions, and Limitations

The Prime Minister (PM) is the main leader of the UK government and has the most power in politics.

They lead the majority party in the House of Commons and are chosen by the monarch. Over time, the PM’s role has become very important in the UK’s political system.

1. Powers of the Prime Minister:
   • Head of Government: The PM leads the executive branch, directing government policies and decisions. They also lead Cabinet meetings and speak for the government.
   • Appointment of Ministers: The PM can choose and remove ministers, including important roles like the Chancellor of the Exchequer (money matters), the Home Secretary (internal security), and the Foreign Secretary (international relations). Most ministers come from the ruling party, but some may come from the House of Lords.
   • Foreign Affairs: The PM helps shape the UK’s foreign policy, representing the country in international meetings and negotiating treaties, but treaties still need approval from Parliament.
   • National Security and Defense: The PM works with the Secretary of State for Defence on national security and the armed forces, although major military decisions are usually made with the Cabinet.
   • Leadership in Crisis: The PM takes charge during crises, like disasters or security threats, and their response can define their time in office.
2. Functions of the Prime Minister:
   • Government Formation: After an election, the PM is usually the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Commons and is invited by the monarch to form a government and appoint ministers.
   • Policy Direction: The PM sets the overall direction for government policies, focusing on issues like the economy, healthcare, education, and social services.
   • Party Leadership: The PM is also the leader of their political party and participates in party activities, shaping party views and campaigning during elections.
3. Limitations on the Prime Minister’s Power:
   • Parliamentary Accountability: The PM must have the support of the majority in Parliament to stay in power. Losing a confidence vote could mean they have to resign.
   • Cabinet and Collective Responsibility: The PM needs the Cabinet’s support since important decisions are made together. Ministers must publicly support Cabinet decisions, even if they disagree.
   • Opposition: Other parties in Parliament monitor the PM’s actions closely. The Leader of the Opposition questions them during debates.
   • Public Opinion: The PM must pay attention to what the public thinks. If people are unhappy, it could affect their ability to implement policies and may lead to calls for their resignation.
   • Constitutional Conventions: The PM has significant power but must follow unwritten rules that ensure they act within the democratic system.

The Cabinet: Composition, Collective Responsibility, and Decision-Making

The Cabinet is the main decision-making group in the UK government, made up of senior ministers who lead important departments. The Prime Minister heads the Cabinet.

1. Composition of the Cabinet:
   • Senior Ministers: The Cabinet is made up of ministers in charge of key areas like Health, Education, Defence, and Foreign Affairs.
   • Junior Ministers: Junior ministers assist senior ministers and work on specific parts of a department. They may not attend all Cabinet meetings but play an important role in government.
   • Other Political Advisors: The Prime Minister can invite important advisors to Cabinet meetings for specific advice.
2. Collective Responsibility:
   • Key Principle: All ministers share responsibility for Cabinet decisions, even if they disagreed with them. Once a decision is made, all must support it publicly.
   • Impact on Resignations: If a minister cannot publicly support a decision, they are expected to resign, keeping the government united.
   • Unity and Stability: This principle helps maintain a stable government, as it prevents ministers from openly criticizing each other.
3. Decision-Making:
   • Cabinet Meetings: These meetings happen regularly to discuss important policies. While ministers can suggest ideas, decisions are made together.
   • Role of the Prime Minister: The PM guides discussions and makes final decisions on contentious issues.
   • Cabinet Committees: Smaller groups may be formed to discuss specific topics in detail, chaired by the Prime Minister or a senior minister.

The Civil Service: Role and Significance in Policy Implementation

The Civil Service is essential for running the UK government, focusing on putting policies into action and managing public services. It consists of non-political staff in various departments.

1. Role of the Civil Service:
   • Policy Implementation: Civil servants make sure the policies from elected ministers are carried out. They run departments and public services.
   • Public Administration: They manage laws, rules, and public programs in areas like healthcare, education, and security.
   • Advice and Expertise: Civil servants provide unbiased advice to ministers based on their expertise, helping them make informed decisions.
   • Continuity: Unlike politicians, civil servants stay in their roles, providing steady administration and long-term planning.
2. Political Neutrality:
   • Civil servants must remain neutral and not participate in political campaigns. This allows them to work for any government with professionalism.
   • They follow a code of conduct to ensure impartiality and confidentiality.
3. Significance in Policy Implementation:
   • Policy Delivery: Civil servants ensure that government policies reach the public effectively and legally.
   • Management of Public Funds: They oversee the use of public money, making sure it is spent wisely.
   • Public Trust: Because they work independently, the Civil Service helps maintain public trust in the government.

Conclusion

The Executive in the UK is key to how the political system works. The Prime Minister leads the executive branch and shapes government policies but must keep support from Parliament, the Cabinet, and the public.

The Cabinet plays an important role in decision-making, with all ministers expected to work together.

Meanwhile, the Civil Service ensures policies are put into action effectively and impartially, helping the government function smoothly while being accountable.

The Judiciary in the United Kingdom

The judiciary in the UK is important for maintaining the law, providing justice, and explaining the laws made by Parliament.

It is separate from the executive and legislature branches of government, which means it operates independently and without outside influence.

The UK’s legal system is based on common law, where courts interpret and apply laws to specific cases.

Structure and Hierarchy of Courts in the UK

The UK has a complicated court system, with different courts for different types of cases.

The judiciary is mainly divided into civil (non-criminal) and criminal areas and includes special courts for family matters and other issues. The court system includes several levels:

1. Magistrates’ Courts:
   • Function: These are the lowest courts and handle most minor criminal cases (like petty theft) and some civil cases (like family law).
   • Judges: They are run by magistrates (non-lawyers) or district judges with legal knowledge.
   • Appeals: Decisions can be taken to the Crown Court.
2. Crown Court:
   • Function: This court handles serious criminal cases (like murder) and appeals from magistrates’ courts.
   • Judges: Cases are heard by circuit judges or High Court judges, often with a jury.
   • Appeals: Convictions can be appealed to the Court of Appeal.
3. High Court:
   • Function: The High Court has three divisions: Queen’s Bench Division (civil disputes), Chancery Division (business law), and Family Division (family law).
   • Judges: High Court judges are very experienced, and handle appeals from lower courts.
   • Appeals: Decisions can be taken to the Court of Appeal.
4. Court of Appeal:
   • Function: This court hears appeals on legal points from the High Court and Crown Court and has two divisions: Civil and Criminal.
   • Judges: Led by Lord Justices of Appeal.
   • Appeals: Its decisions can be appealed to the Supreme Court in some cases.
5. Supreme Court:
   • Function: The Supreme Court is the highest court and makes final decisions for civil and criminal cases. Its rulings set legal rules that lower courts must follow.
   • Judges: It has 12 Justices and is led by the President of the Supreme Court.
   • Appeals: It can hear cases from the Court of Appeal if they involve important legal issues.
6. Specialized Tribunals:
   • Besides the main court system, there are specialized tribunals for specific cases, like employment, immigration, mental health, and tax issues. These tribunals work alongside the main courts.

The Role of the Judiciary in Interpreting Laws

The judiciary in the UK is key in interpreting and applying laws. Judges do not just enforce laws but also create legal principles through judicial precedents—past decisions that influence how laws are understood in new cases.

1. Interpreting Statute Law:
   • Judicial Interpretation: Courts explain unclear laws made by Parliament, ensuring fair and consistent application.
   • Judicial Precedent: Courts must follow earlier decisions made by higher courts in similar cases.
2. Judicial Review:
   • The judiciary can review government actions to check if public bodies are acting lawfully. If a government action is illegal, the courts can cancel it.
   • This process helps ensure that government actions follow the rule of law and respect democratic principles.
3. Developing Common Law:
   • Judges help shape common law through their decisions. While Parliament writes statutes, much of UK law evolves through court rulings, especially in areas like contract law and property law.

The Concept of Judicial Independence

Judicial independence is crucial for the UK legal system. It allows judges to make fair decisions without outside pressure from politicians or the government.

1. Separation of Powers:
   • This principle keeps the judiciary separate from the executive and legislature, ensuring judges interpret laws without interference.
2. Protection from Political Pressure:
   • Judges cannot be removed easily, which protects them from political influence and allows them to focus on the law.
3. Financial Independence:
   • Judges’ pay is set independently, ensuring they can make fair decisions without financial pressure.
4. Judicial Accountability:
   • Judges must explain their decisions clearly, and their actions can be reviewed by higher courts. If judges act wrongly, they can face disciplinary action.

The Impact of the Human Rights Act 1998 on the Judiciary

The Human Rights Act 1998 (HRA) brought rights from the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into UK law, allowing people to enforce these rights in UK courts.

1. Incorporation of ECHR Rights:
   • The HRA includes rights like the right to a fair trial and freedom from torture, and courts can hear cases about these rights.
2. Judicial Role in Human Rights Protection:
   • Courts interpret the HRA and check if government actions follow human rights standards. They can declare a law incompatible with human rights, though Parliament is not forced to change it.
3. Influence on Legislative and Executive Actions:
   • While courts cannot cancel laws, they can highlight human rights issues, encouraging lawmakers to change laws that do not meet these standards.

Conclusion

The judiciary in the UK is essential for interpreting laws, protecting rights, and maintaining the rule of law. Its independence is key for a fair justice system without political influence.

Through judicial review and the development of common law, the judiciary holds the government accountable and safeguards people’s rights.

Political Parties and Elections in the United Kingdom

Political parties are very important in the UK’s democracy. They compete in elections, influence public policy, and represent what people want.

The UK uses a voting system called First-Past-the-Post (FPTP), which affects how parties perform in elections.

This section will look at the main political parties, the voting system, how parties shape public policy, and recent changes in UK elections.

Main Political Parties

The UK has three main political parties:

1. Conservative Party:
   • Beliefs: Known as the Tories, the Conservative Party supports free markets, personal responsibility, and gradual change. They are usually center-right, with some members favoring lower taxes and less government involvement.
   • Main Issues: They focus on national security, immigration control, tax cuts, and a strong defense. They promote a market-driven economy and emphasize British sovereignty, especially regarding Brexit.
   • Supporters: They mainly attract middle and upper-class voters, especially in rural areas and the South of England.
2. Labour Party:
   • Beliefs: The Labour Party is center left, supporting social democracy and progressive ideas. They aim to reduce inequality, improve social welfare, and protect workers’ rights.
   • Main Issues: They advocate for universal healthcare, fair taxes, public ownership of key services, and action on climate change.
   • Supporters: Labour is strong in urban areas, especially in the North of England, Wales, and Scotland, and they attract younger voters and working-class communities.
3. Liberal Democrats:
   • Beliefs: The Liberal Democrats (Lib Dems) are centrist, supporting individual freedoms and social justice. They focus on environmental issues and democratic reforms.
   • Main Issues: They want to change the voting system, increase funding for public services, and support a green economy.
   • Supporters: They appeal to liberal voters, especially younger, educated people in urban areas.

While the Conservatives and Labour are the main parties, the Liberal Democrats serve as an important third party.

Voting System: First-Past-the-Post (FPTP)

The UK’s voting system for general elections is First-Past-the-Post (FPTP), which has major effects on party politics and results.

1. How FPTP Works:
   • Single-Member Constituencies: The UK is divided into 650 areas, each electing one member of Parliament (MP). The candidate with the most votes in each area wins.
   • Plurality: A candidate only needs more votes than anyone else, not a majority. This means a winner can have less than half of the votes.
2. Effects of FPTP:
   • Unfair Representation: FPTP can lead to situations where the number of seats a party has doesn’t match the votes they get. For example, in the 2015 election, UKIP got 12.6% of the votes but only one seat, while the Conservatives had fewer votes but won many seats.
   • Two-Party System: This system helps the two largest parties (Conservatives and Labour) because they are more likely to win in each area, making it hard for smaller parties like the Liberal Democrats to gain seats.
   • Safe and Marginal Seats: Some areas are “safe” for one party, while others are “marginal,” where both major parties compete for votes. This leads parties to focus on marginal areas during campaigns.
   • Majority Governments: FPTP usually results in one party winning enough seats to govern alone but can also create situations where no party has a clear majority, leading to coalitions or minority governments.
3. Calls for Change:
   • Because of the unfair outcomes of FPTP, some people want to change to a system like Proportional Representation (PR), which would better match the number of seats to the votes each party gets. However, no changes have happened yet.

Political Parties and Public Policy

Political parties in the UK are key in shaping public policy. They do this in several ways:

1. Making Policy:
   • Parties create manifestos before elections that outline their plans for the economy, healthcare, education, and the environment.
   • They hold conferences and discussions to involve party members in shaping their policies.
2. Election Campaigns:
   • During campaigns, parties try to win over voters by promoting their policies and criticizing the opposition.
   • The media plays a big role in how the public sees party policies, with parties using ads, debates, and social media to reach voters.
3. Forming Governments:
   • When a party wins an election, it forms a government, with its leader becoming the Prime Minister. The policies in their manifesto guide government actions.
   • Parties also manage government departments and make decisions about public spending.
4. Opposition:
   • Parties not in power become the official opposition, checking the government’s policies and offering alternatives. The Leader of the Opposition plays a crucial role in holding the government accountable.

Recent Trends in UK Elections and Party Politics

1. Brexit’s Impact:
   • The Brexit vote in 2016 changed UK politics significantly, causing divisions within the Conservative Party and affecting Labour’s support.
2. New Political Movements:
   • The Scottish National Party (SNP) has grown in Scotland, promoting independence and progressive ideas.
   • The Green Party has gained popularity, especially among younger voters, due to its focus on environmental issues.
3. Voter Changes:
   • The voter base for parties is shifting. The Conservative Party is attracting more working-class voters, while Labour is losing support in some areas.
   • Issues like identity, immigration, and the environment are becoming more important for younger and urban voters.
4. Coalition and Minority Governments:
   • The 2010 election led to a coalition between the Conservative Party and the Liberal Democrats.
   • The 2017 and 2019 elections resulted in no party having a clear majority, leading to the Conservatives needing support from smaller parties.

Conclusion

Political parties and elections are essential parts of the UK’s political system.

The First-Past-the-Post system often favors the Conservative and Labour parties, leading to unfair representation for smaller parties. Political parties shape public policy by making plans, campaigning, and forming governments.

However, recent events like Brexit, new political movements, and changes in voter demographics are transforming UK politics.

Devolution and Regional Governance in the UK

Devolution is when the UK government gives some powers from Westminster to local governments in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.

The goal is to meet regional needs for more local control while keeping the UK united.

The Process of Devolution in the UK

Devolution happened over time and is a newer change in UK politics. It started because regions wanted more power, especially Scotland and Wales, which had long asked for it.

1. Scotland:
   • Devolution started in 1997 after a referendum where most Scots wanted a Scottish Parliament with more powers. The Scotland Act 1998 created the Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh, giving it control over education, health, transport, and justice.
   • Scotland manages many local issues, but key matters like defense, foreign policy, and immigration are still controlled by Westminster.
   • Scotland has been discussing more self-determination, especially after the 2014 independence referendum, where Scots voted to stay in the UK but are now asking for another vote due to Brexit.
2. Wales:
   • In 1997, a referendum in Wales led to the creation of the National Assembly for Wales (now called the Senedd or Welsh Parliament), which got limited powers over education, health, and local matters.
   • Initially, Wales had few powers, but the Government of Wales Act 2006 and later changes increased its authority, allowing it to decide on transport and energy. A referendum in 2011 further expanded its powers.
   • Like Scotland, Wales doesn’t control defense, foreign affairs, and immigration.
3. Northern Ireland:
   • Devolution in Northern Ireland followed the Good Friday Agreement (1998), which aimed to end years of conflict known as “The Troubles.” This agreement created the Northern Ireland Assembly in Belfast, which controls areas like education, health, and justice.
   • The political situation in Northern Ireland involves power-sharing between the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) and Sinn Féin, representing different communities. However, devolution has faced instability, with the Assembly being suspended at times due to disagreements, especially over the Northern Ireland Protocol.

Powers and Functions of Devolved Administrations

Each regional government has specific powers, while some powers stay with Westminster. The powers differ for each nation:

1. Scottish Parliament:
   • Devolved Powers: These cover education, health, housing, transport, justice, environment, and local government.
   • Reserved Powers: Areas like defense, foreign policy, and immigration remain with Westminster.
   • The Scottish Parliament can also change income tax rates and make laws on devolved issues.
2. Welsh Parliament (Senedd Cymru):
   • Devolved Powers: These include health, education, local government, transport, and housing.
   • Reserved Powers: Key areas like defense, foreign affairs, and immigration are reserved to Westminster.
   • Unlike Scotland, Wales cannot change income tax rates but can increase some domestic taxes.
3. Northern Ireland Assembly:
   • Devolved Powers: The Assembly controls health, education, agriculture, justice, and other areas.
   • Reserved Powers: Matters like defense, foreign policy, and social security stay with Westminster.
   • The Assembly uses a power-sharing approach, involving both Unionist and Nationalist parties, making political stability more complicated.

The Impact of Devolution on UK Politics and Governance

1. Increased Regional Autonomy:
   • Devolution has given more power to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, allowing them to create policies that fit their needs, especially in healthcare, education, and transport.
2. National Identity and Independence Movements:
   • Devolution has led to discussions about national identity and independence, especially in Scotland, where the Scottish National Party (SNP) seeks full independence from the UK. The Brexit referendum intensified these talks, as Scotland largely wanted to remain in the EU while the UK voted to leave.
   • In Wales and Northern Ireland, there are also calls for more autonomy, especially after Brexit, as both were more pro-EU than England.
3. Impact on UK Government:
   • Devolution has changed the UK’s political system, leading to an uneven distribution of powers across the four nations. This has sparked calls for a more balanced federal system in the UK.
   • The West Lothian Question arises, where MPs from devolved areas (like Scotland) can vote on issues affecting England, but English MPs cannot vote on devolved issues. This creates tensions and calls for reform to fix these imbalances.

Current Issues and Challenges in UK Politics

The UK faces many important challenges that affect its political system, governance, and constitution.

Key issues include Brexit, constitutional reform, and challenges to parliamentary sovereignty in a globalized world.

Brexit and Its Effects on UK Politics

1. Impact on Political Landscape:
   • The Brexit referendum (2016) has been a major event in recent UK politics. The leave vote caused big changes in the political scene, causing divisions in major parties (Conservative and Labour) and shifting voter preferences.
   • The Brexit process from 2016 to 2019 involved a lot of political changes, with new leaders, referendums, and long debates in Parliament. Negotiations about leaving the EU dominated UK politics for years, deepening divisions between Leave and Remain supporters.
2. Impact on Devolution:
   • Brexit has greatly affected the devolved nations. While Scotland and Northern Ireland wanted to remain in the EU, the rest of the UK chose to leave, causing tensions over issues like the Northern Ireland Protocol and Scottish independence.
   • The Brexit process has raised questions about the future of devolution, with Scotland wanting another independence referendum and discussions on how much power devolved governments should have after Brexit.
3. Economic and Trade Implications:
   • The UK’s exit from the EU has led to economic challenges, including disruptions to trade, the labour market, and regulations. These issues continue to shape discussions about free trade agreements, the Northern Ireland border, and economic policy.

Discussions on Constitutional Reform and Modernization

1. Calls for a Written Constitution:
   • There is a debate in the UK about whether to change from its unwritten constitution to a written constitution that would clearly define the government’s relationship with Parliament and citizens. Supporters believe it would bring clarity and protection of rights, while critics worry about potential rigidity.
2. Electoral Reform:
   • The UK’s First-Past-the-Post voting system is often debated, with many wanting a more proportional system that would better represent different political views. This change could give smaller parties like the Liberal Democrats, Green Party, and UKIP a fairer representation.
3. House of Lords Reform:
   • The House of Lords, the upper chamber of Parliament, is not elected and is seen as undemocratic. Discussions continue about whether it should be reformed to become elected or abolished.

Challenges to Parliamentary Sovereignty in a Globalized World

1. International Agreements:
   • The UK’s parliamentary sovereignty is challenged by its involvement in international agreements like the EU (before Brexit) and other treaties. Sometimes, international laws can override national laws, leading to discussions about the limits of sovereignty.
2. Globalization and Human Rights:
   • In a more globalized world, the UK faces challenges from international bodies, including the European Court of Human Rights. The Human Rights Act 1998 ties UK law to international human rights standards, which some see as limiting parliamentary sovereignty.
3. Brexit’s Impact on Global Governance:
   • After Brexit, the UK must navigate a more complex environment for trade, security, and environmental rules. The rise of global governance and regional agreements may continue to challenge the UK’s independence in making laws, especially as it seeks new trade deals.

Conclusion

The UK’s political system is facing major challenges from devolution, Brexit, and the tension between parliamentary sovereignty and global influences.

Devolution has given more power to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, raising questions about the future of the union. Meanwhile, Brexit has reshaped politics, leading to discussions on constitutional reform and the UK’s role in a changing global landscape.

These issues will continue to influence UK politics in the coming years.